BIS204 Invertebrates Flashcards
Animals have to solve the same problems in order to survive
-Get food and oxygen
-Maintenance of water and salt balance
-Removal of wastes
-Reproduction
Why are molluscs grouped close to annelids?
Due to trochophore (free-swimming) larval stage
Mollusc circulatory system
Open, haemocoel (blood system and coelom)
Oxygenated blood in heart pumped around coelom
Once deoxygenated, makes its way back to vessels in gills where it is oxygenated
Returns to vessels in the heart
Mollusc groups
Gastropods, bivalves, cephalopods
Body design necessary to meet survival problems correlates with 4 factors:
-Body design
-Size of animal
-Mode of existence
-Constraints of the genome
Aphotic zone
-No light, no photosynthesis
-Animals require other strategies than consuming phytoplankton
-Contains abyssal plane and Mariana trench
Terms to describe marine organisms
Pelagic- suspended or swimming
Benthic- bottom
Errant- mobile
Sessile- attached
Sedentary- unattached, immobile
What happens to pressure and temperature as you go deeper into the ocean?
Pressure increases and temperature decreases
Advantages of the sea
-Space
-High productivity
-Relatively constant
-Ocean water moves constantly due to wind and Earth’s rotation
-Isosmotic with body tissue fluids of many animals, meaning no complex osmoregulation required
-Buoyancy (can support large animals due to water density)
-Ammonia dissolves in water, so can be expelled as waste
-Allows for external fertilisation
Productivity of ocean
-(28 x 10^9 tons c/yr)
-Mainly photic zone
Where is ocean productivity highest?
Near continental shelves and coastlines, due to photosynthesis able to happen and nutrient run-off from land and freshwater
Constants of the ocean
-Temperature (high surface heat capacity, large volume and SA)
-Salinity is 3.4-3.7% (-3.5 in deep sea), low rainfall and high temperatures lead to high salinity, such as in the Arabia gulf
-Oxygen (highest in top 100m due to photosynthesis)
-pH is 7.8 (slightly alkaline due to CO2 dissolving, which is becoming an issue)
Estuarine environment
-Includes salt marshes (temperate) and mangroves
-Salinity <3.5%, as seawater mixes with freshwater
-Productive
-Only habited by specific organisms
-Seasonal variations
-Fertilisation depends on organism
-Waste can still be expelled as ammonia
-Support is still provided
Terrestrial environment features
-Daily and seasonal temperature extremes
-Oxygen uptake requires moist surface, but oxygen is constant
-Can suffer water loss, a big issue with animals
-No support for bigger animals
-Internal fertilisation required and eggs must be protected
-Ammonia will not dissolve, so waste is urea or uric acid
SA : Volume ratios
-As body size increases, the ratio decreases
-Small animals have large SA : Volume ratios, diffusion may be possible for gaseous exchange and waste removal etc., but can dry out easily
-Large animals have small ratios and require other mechanisms such as excretory and circulatory systems
What are genome constraints?
Limitations imposed by ancestral design controlled by animal’s genetic make-up (molluscs are incredibly diverse, but have the same body plan)
Pellicle in protozoans
-Cytoskeleton and membrane of protozoans
-Cytoplasm determines rigidity and flexibility
-Equivalent to cell wall
Test in protozoans
-Hard exterior of some protozoans
-Made by substances secreted by the organism or materials from surroundings
Locomotion in protozoans
-Using flagella (usually two) to propel organism forward by undulating
-Cilia are shorter, more abundant and can cover whole organism, beating in a metachronal wave, flopping to return to position
-Pseudopodia
Acquisition of food in protozoans
-Pinocytosis, small food particles engulfed into a vacuole
-Receptor mediated endocytosis, receptors on membrane detect and pick up specific foods
-Phagocytosis for large food particles, various receptors
-Oral groove (cytostome) is a specific area for eating
Reproduction in protozoans
-Different strategies among groups
-Asexual haploid
-Haploid adults with zygotic meiosis
-Diploid cycle
-Haplodiploid cycle
What controls protozoan cell water content?
Contractile vacuole
Examples of protozoans
-Amoebozoa
-Apicomplexans
-Trypanosomes
-Ciliates
Features of amoebozoa
-Found in damp environments due to high SA : volume ratio meaning water loss through osmosis
-Most free living, some parasitic
Parasitic amoebozoa
-Entamoeba dispar and colis
-Entamoeba histolytica
Commensalism
The term commensalism refers to a type of relationship between two different organisms that “eat from the same dish”
Apicomplexans
-Parasites
-Apical complex made of different cells found on top of organism that is used to latch on to host cells and enable parasite to be taken up by host cells
-Plasmodium
-Toxoplasma
Plasmodium
-Most deadly is falciparum
-Mosquito acts as a vector but also enables reproduction of plasmodium, making mosquito the definitive host
-Infected mosquito bites human
-Sporozoites from salivary glands enter human bloodstream and make way to liver
-Undergo many divisions (schizogony) to form merozoites that infect red blood cells
-Some develop into gametocytes, the final stage
-Gametocytes taken up by mosquito and gather in gut to form a zygote
-Zygote immediately undergoes meiosis to form more sporozoites that go to salivary glands
->1/2M deaths/yr, mostly children, 95% in Africa
Trypanosoma brucei
-Causes sleeping sickness
-Infects hoofed animals
-Has flagellum
-Kinetoplast full of mitochondrial DNA
-Has a variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) that triggers immune response in animal
-Animal produces antigens in response
-Can alter its VSG to evade immune system of animal
-Uses tsetse fly as vector, infected ones feed more
-Suggestion that zebra stripes are protection against tsetse flies by disrupting polarized light omitted by water
-Gambiense subsepcies fly-human-fly, death 2-3 years
-Rhodesiense is fly-game-fly, zoonosis and death 6-18 weeks
Toxoplasma gandii
-Life cycle involving cats and rodents
-Reproduces in cats, the definitive host
-Rodent is intermediate host, or vector
-Evidence that parasite manipulates host to lose fear of cats, meaning more are eaten and passed back to cats
-Suggested that 50% of human population infected
-Can affect unborn babies and possibly behaviour of adults
Trypanosomes
-Parasitic
-Trypanosoma brucei
-Ciliates
Ciliates
-Covered in cilia
-Aquatic/damp environments
-Most free living, some symbionts or parasites
-Contain micronuclei for sexual reproduction by conjugation (cells attaching and transferring genetic material) and macronuclei for asexual reproduction by binary division
-Can be attached
How and when did metazoans come to being?
-Approx. 700 MYA
-Individual cells grouped in a colony began coordinating their roles e.g. reproduction and feeding
-Each individual is now dependent on each other
-Known as colonial theory
Evidence for colonial theory of metazoan origin?
-Flagellated cells found in metazoans
-Many flagellates form colonies
-Molecularly, some flagellates do express certain genes that can be found in metazoans
-Choanoflagellates are most closely related unicellular relatives of animals
Choanoflagellates
Similar to sponges, live in aquatic and waterlogged systems
Phylum Porifera
Sponges
Features of sponges
-Simple structure with cellular level of operation and no tissues or organs
-Successful and widespread across aquatic ecosystems
-Variety of forms depending on where they are found
Origin of sponges
-Possible fossils found from 640-650 MYA
-Origin debated, used to be known as parazoa due to differences to other animals and separated on phylogenies
-It is now debated that other animal groups should be in that place
Are sponges completely sessile?
-No, they move very slowly (capable of moving 4mm per day)
-Can latch on to other animals
-Can perform ‘sponging’
-Were thought to be plants until 1700s
What is sponging?
-Animals such as bottle-nosed dolphin carry sponges on their mouths to help forage
-Fragments fall off and can regenerate
Sponge varieties
-Intertidal zone is used to wave action and food availability, so sponges are encrusted, flat and low growing
-Deeper water has less water movement and food availability so sponges are larger
Basic sponge structure
-Pinacytes form a pinacoderm (outside layer)
-Porocytes are holes throughout the sponge that come to the spongocoel
-Entrance to porocyte is called an ostium (incurrent pore)
-Lining the sponge are choanocytes
-Flagellum
-Amoebocytes crawl around, performing various tasks
-Mesohyl
Sponge water intake
-Ostium allows water into the sponge
-Water then leaves through osculum
Job of choanocytes
Used to take up food as sponge moves
Role of sponge flagellum
-Flap to generate a current through sponge
-Water passes through at up to 20,000 times the sponge’s volume in 24 hours
-Rate that flagella beat at can change
-Respond to stimuli, and (using myocytes (similar function to muscle cells)) can close osculum by contracting to pull it in
-Closure of osculum is to avoid drying out or to protect
Sponge amoebocyte function
-Gather up food
-Clean up outside of sponges
-Totipotent
-Secrete spicules
Sponge spicules function
-Form skeleton of sponge
-Some calcareous, some siliceous, some spongin (protein), or silicate spongin (CaCO3)
-Give internal structure and hold pores open
-Protect
Mesohyl of sponge
Forms inside ‘body’ and contains spiracles
Glass sponge features
-Found in deep sea
-Cannot close osculum, fixed shape
-75% of tissues are syncytial
-Produce electrical impulses
-Made of very fine silicate spicules
-Pairs of shrimps live inside sponge and get trapped during aduthood
Syncytial
No cell boundaries, masses of cells in sheets
Glass sponge electrical impulses
-Travel across sponge
-Control beating of choanocytes
-Can protect, e.g. if stimulated by sediment, beating is stopped and no sediment is taken up
-Not found in other sponges
Glass sponge silicate spicules
-Spicules go up, down and diagonal in patterns
-Many buildings have similar structures
-It increases strength
How do sponges feed?
-Most are filter feeders
-Some are carnivorous
-Sponges help coral reefs thrive in ocean deserts
Sponge filter feeding
-Small items such as bacteria
-Trapped by choanocytes and engulfed by amoebocytes
-Products transported through sponge
Some carnivorous
-Usually in deep sea as less food available
-E.g., harp sponges he modified spicules to trap prey such as shrimp
How do sponges help coral reefs thrive in ocean deserts?
-Help recycling of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous
-Take up organic material produced by reefs
-This makes them accessible to other animals as parts of sponge drop off and can be eaten
Sponge reproduction
-Regeneration
-Some asexual reproduction
-Some sexual reproduction
Sponge regeneration
-Worked on by Wilson in early 1900s
-When pushed through a sieve they were able to reform
-When two sponges pushed through sieve, two were formed, showing that sponges can recognise own cells
Asexual reproduction in sponges
-Budding (small bit will drop off and form new sponge)
-By gemmules (little structure that pops out of sponge)
Sponge gemmules
-If harsh conditions arrive, gemmules are stimulated
-They are surrounded by spicules and filled with amoebocytes
-They stay resting until conditions return, when the amoebocytes are released to form a new sponge
Sexual reproduction in sponges
-Most hermaphrodite
-Do cross fertilise
-Gametes form as response to environment changes
-Sperm and eggs produced at different times to prevent self-fertilisation
-Sperm are expelled via osculum and engulfed by choanocytes (collar cells) of another sponge that transfer sperm to egg by losing flagellum and moving into the sponge
-Larvae are retained until the blastula stage, where they are released to swim around until finding a suitable environment to metamorphise
Sponge symbioses
-With zooanthellae
-With bacteria
Sponge - zooanthellae (algae) relationship
-Also seen in corals
-Algae are photosynthetic, so sponge gains photosynthetic pigments
-Different colours formed by symbiosis are used as a warning of toxicity to other organisms as protection
-Sponges provide nutrients for the algae
Sponge - bacteria relationship
-Sponges generate help with nutrient processing
-Some generate secondary metabolites, some of which have antibacterial/antiviral activity and can be harvested for medical use
-Some produce biotoxins that kill other organisms, preventing competition and killing organisms growing on it
Platyhelminthe basic structure
-Trpoblastic
-Bilaterally symmetrical
-Cephalisation
-Dorso-ventrally flattened
-Have organs
-75% are parasitic, with the free-living forms in freshwater
-Hermaphrodites
Triboblastic (acoelomate) meaning
-Gut in middle, surrounded by endoderm
-Solid mesoderm
-Ectoderm on outside
-No body cavity
Cephalisation
Concentration of nervous tissue in the anterior end
Positives and negatives of dorso-ventral flattening
-Can use diffusion (thus respiration)
-Prone to drying out
Platyhelminthes eating and digesting
-Pharynx is in middle of animal and is inserted into food and produces digestive enzymes
-Both extra- and intra- cellular digestion
-Gut has one opening
-Simple excretory system (protonephridia)
Platyhelminthes movement
-Can use longitudinal muscles to move
-Some acquire nematocysts from prey
Platyhelminthe nervous system
-Simple eye spots to detect light and dark to stay away from surface and avoid drying out
-Have oracles that detect chemicals
-Longitudinal nerves run along bodies
Platyhelminthe regeneration
-Further down the animal that you chop, the longer it takes to regenerate a head
-If a thin slice is made, two heads are grown (Janus head)
-Totipotent cells are known as neoblasts, and respond to a chemical gradient and tells the animal if it is a head or tail end
-Asexual reproduction thus possible
Patyhelminthes biochemical memory?
-Thompson and McConnell 1950s and 60s
-Paired bright light and electric shock
-Showing light without electricity caused animals to react as if electric shock had occurred
-Chopped up worms also responded this way
-McConnell suggested memory transferred chemically but results never reproduced
-More recent experiments trained them to not move from bright lights and empty space, which continued after chopping and regenerating
Sexual reproduction in platyhelminthes
-Mutual exchange of sperm or penis fencing in free-living form
-Many do not want the responsibility of having to be impregnated
-Worms then fight in order to pass sperm on without being impregnated
What adaptations did platyhelminthes evolve to become parasitic?
-Loss of unwanted organs such as gut, sensory organs
-Penetration devices to get into host such as hooks
-Attachment devices such as hooks and suckers
-Protective devices from digestion such as a covering, mucus, enzymes and chemicals
-Transmission via a vector
-Production of eggs in large numbers
Flukes (trematodes) features
-Tegument (non-ciliated syncytium)
-Suckers (oral and ventral)
-Simple gut
-Nervous system present
-Protonephridia also present
Reproduction in flukes
-Lots of reproductive tissue
-Reproductive system produces 10,000-100,000 times more eggs than free-living flatworms
-Usually hermaphrodite
-Mutual copulation
Annelid basic structure
-Blood system to transport fluids
-Coelom with hydrostatic skeleton
-Metemeric segmentation
-Closed circulatory system
-Epidermis covered by cuticle for protection
Role of coelom in annelids
-For transport
-Gut moves independently of body wall
-Site for gamete maturation
Annelid hydrostatic skeleton
-Water incompressible; base against which muscles can contract
-Circular muscles round outside are long and thin
-Longitudinal muscles are short and fat
-Muscles work antagonistically, creating peristalsis
Annelid locomotion using peristalsis
-An anchor is created, where longitudinal muscles contract
-Circular muscles then contract at opposite end
-This forms waves of contractions
-Penetration anchor prevents back slipping
-Terminal anchor allows trailing part of body to be pulled forward
Metameric segmentation
-Locomotion more efficient and precise
-Some structures run length of animal, some repeated in each segment such as nephridia and the excretory system
-Segments divided internally by septa
-Proliferation zone is where new segments are added
How may metameric segmentation be modified in annelids?
-Restriction of structures to particular segments, e.g., sensory apparatus in head, reproductive tissue in certain segments
-Some segments develop special structures such as swimming and sensory structures
-Segments may fuse together
Annelid excretory system
-Substances passed out through blood vessel walls by contraction
-Taken up by nephanephridium, where useful substances are absorbed and waste is expelled
Annelid groups
-Polychaeta (predominantly marine)
-Oligochaeta, including hirudinae (leeches) and clitellata
Polychaeta features
-Parapodia (pair of fleshy projections to increase SA) and lots of setae (bristle like structures for movement)
-Protomium (head end) well developed
-Nuchal organs also present
Errant vs sedentary polychaeta
-Errant e.g. Nereis (ragworm) move around a lot, active, developed head etc
-Sedentary example 1, Sabella (fanworm), a suspension feeder, uses tentacles to catch particles in water, sorting them out so that large particles are expelled, small eaten and medium used to build tube
-Other sedentary worms include sand mason and Arenicola (lugworm) that live in burrows and draw in sand to feed on, extracting organic material and defecating in burrow, producing worm casks
Polychaeta reproduction
-Mostly dioecious
-Most externally fertilise, some internal
-Spawning may be synchronous (egg and sperm release timed)
-Epitoky occurs
-Larvae form with cilia that swim until suitable habitat is found
Epitoky
-Transformations of polychaeta during reproduction
-Includes development of elaborate parapodia for a lot of swimming, or a feeding apparatus so that more energy can be focused on reproduction
Clitellata features
-No parapodia
-Produce clitellum (important for reproduction and cocoon production)
-Hermaphrodite
-Gonads restricted to a few segments
Oligochaetes (earthworms) features
-Few setae
-Dependent on peristaltic locomotion
-Terrestrial forms burrow and change depth based on moisture
-Recycle soil nutrients, feeding and decomposing organic material
-Also bring leaf material into burrow
-First segment is prostomium, second is mouth
-Male and female gonopore in particular segment
-Clitellum also known as saddle and is hear the head
What did Darwin discover about oligochaetes?
-Respond to vibrations
-Material brought into burrow by narrowest part, suggesting intelligence
Mutual sperm transfer in Lumbricus earthworms
-Pair up head to tail
-Clitellum produces mucus to stick worms together
-Sperm released from male gonopore travels along sperm grooves, crossing over near head of other worm in the spermathecal opening
-Worms then come apart, and clitellum produces cocoon
-Cocoon wriggles through worm, passing over female gonopore, releasing eggs that go over spermathecal opening (where other worm sperm is)
-Pops off top of head and closes up, developing in cocoon
-Miniature worms released (no larvae stage)
Hirudinean features
-No setae
-Restricted number of segments (34) although markings make it appear to be more
-Mutual sperm transfer
-No septa but crawl with suckers (also have jaws for feeding)
-Predaceous
Hirudinean locomotion
-Latches on with suckers, followed by waves of contractions
-Can also swim by undulating body
Hirudineans predation
-Feed on other small invertebrates
-Use jaws to process prey
-Some suck bodily fluids from animals
-Some use enzymes to break down flesh for blood
-Blood suckers produce anticoagulant (hirudin) and anaesthetic (no scientific evidence for this)
-Can live off meal for six months
Mollusc general structure
-Visceral mass (gut and other organs) covered in mantle, which produces shell if present
-Mantle cavity holds gills (for respiration)
-Head/foot region
-Mouth has radula
-Plastic body plan with 7 different groups
Mollusc respiration
-Cilia controls water flow
-Blood flowing in opposite directions
Mollusc nervous system
-Relatively simple
-Nerve ring around oesophagus and branches into head/foot region and visceral mass
Mollusc radula
-Used to graze
-Teeth move around as if on a conveyor belt
-Some modified to drill into shells (dog whelks) or inject
Gastropod developments
-Development of head
-Dorso-ventral elongation of body
-Shell (from shield to a protective retreat)
-Torsion
-Some specialised and unique to specific regions such as partula
Development of head in gastropods
-More sensory organs such as tentacles or eyes (varying complexity)
-Organs for detecting chemicals and gravity
Torsion in gastropods
-Rotation of visceral mass and mantle cavity through 180 degrees
-Mantle cavity goes from back to front
-Advantages are protection of veliger larva (can retreat into mantle cavity), protection of adult and utilisation of oncoming water by gills
-A disadvantage is having the anus over the head
Abalone
-Evolution of gastropod meant modifications of mantle cavity to solve salination problem and water flow
-Abalones have little holes in shell for water to enter underneath
-Waste products are taken out through anus
Gastropod shell coiling
-Planispiral (symmetrical) sits very high on animal
-Conispiral (assymetrical) is sloped, making it a better shape for movement
-Vast majority of gastropods usually coil on right-hand side, but some coil on left
-Within species, some can be left coiling
Pulmonates
-Most specialised gastropods
-Terrestrial
-Mantle cavity is vascularised (rich blood supply) and functions like a lung (no gills)
-Can take in air from an opening
Nudibranchs
-Sea slugs
-Undergo detorsion
-No gills, use cerrata on outside surface for respiration
-Rhinophores used for chemical detection
-When disturbed produces inky substance containing opaline, which is found to disrupt shells of crustaceans that prey on it
Partula
-Found in Tahiti and Moorea (Pacific islands)
-There was a pest problem on the island (African land snail, so predatory rosy wolfsnail brought in to feed on snails (biological control)
-The rosy wolfsnail did not eat the African land snails, instead eating Partula, reducing populations to near extinction
Bivalve general structure
-Shell consists of two parts (hence name)
-Eyes on mantle edge that vary in complexity
-No radula or sensory structures in head region
-Various palps to gather up food and pass to mouth
-Various abductor muscles that open shell for feeding
-Foot used to anchor and gather food
-Foot and gills vary in size
-Reduced nervous system
-Most are lamellibranchs (filter feeders)
-Most dioecious
Bivalve lamellibranchs
-Use gills to draw in water
-Filtering system occurs
-Palps also help sort
-Have greatly enlarged gills for this
Examples of bivalves
-Mussels
-Giant clams
-Scallops
Mussels
-In intertidal zones
-Use bisal threads to anchor
-Also use threads to protect from predators such as dog whelks
Giant clams and algae
-Symbiotic relationship
-Clams gain photosynthetic products
-Algae help with the laying down of shell
How do scallops move
Able to flap shells
Cephalopods basic structure
-Marine carnivores
-Orientation of body has changed, becoming elongated with an anterior/posterior axis
-Shell reduced/lost except in Nautilus and fossils
-Foot modified into tentacles, with various sensory structures
-Do not rely on cilia, but instead muscular contractions bring in water and produce jet propulsions for movement
-Have jaws and radula
-Some produce neurotoxins (such as blue ringed octopus)
Cephalopod nervous system
-Well developed
-Cephalisation (concentration of nervous tissue to form brain (biggest in any invertebrate) enclosed in cartilaginous tissue)
-Eyes are very sophisticated and compared to vertebrate eyes but operate slightly different
Cephalopods colour changing
-Can change colour due to chromatophores that change shape, directed by relaxing or contracting of muscle cells
-Used for mating displays and to avoid predation
-Octopuses were trained to take different coloured balls, while others watched and copied, showing that they can learn from each other
Cephalopods circulatory system
-Closed
-Oxygenated blood pumped into heart and then around body through vessels
Nautiloids
-First appeared in the Cambrian
-Found in deep water
-Live in end cavity within shell
-Eye less sophisticated
-Less active and predatory
-Other shell chambers responsible for buoyancy control
-Cephuncle concentrates irons inside, causing water to flow in through osmosis
-If salts move into other chambers, so will water
-Thought that shell evolved from nautilus-like animal
Coleoidea
-Cuttlefish, squid, octopi
-Cuttelfish have internal shell (cuttlebone) that aids in buoyancy
-Squid have shell reduced to proteinaceous pen that runs through animal to give support, with buoyancy instead controlled using ammonia
-Octopi shell vestigial/absent and are typically benthic, with an extremely flexible body shape
Arthropod groups
-Arachnids
-Crustaceans
-Myriapods
-Insects
Mites
-Free-living and parasitic
-Dustmites produce harmful halogens
-Varroa feed on haemolymph of larvae stages of bees, transferring virus such as deformed wing virus and can collapse hive systems of honeybees
-Both ticks and mites have chelicerae and pedipalps
Ticks
-Ectoparasites
-Have hypostome
-Small but expand when take up blood
-Some transmit diseases such as Lyme disease, named after town where it was first described and transmitted by spirochete
Crustacean general structure
-Predominantly aquatic (terrestrial forms include woodlice)
-Two pairs of antennae
-A lot of variation due to tagmatisation and adaptive radiation of appendages
-Mandibles and first and second maxilla
-Biramous appendages
-Some carry females precopula, waiting for moulting, as the cuticle will be soft enough to penetrate
-Nauplius larva
Crustacean variation in appendages example
Crayfish have a combined head and thorax, with walking legs in thorax, one modified as a claw and tiny appendages used for swimming in the abdomen
Crustacean respiration
-Through internalised gills in branchial chamber
-Originated from thoracic appendages (epipods)
-Terrestrial epipods modified to contain tubes instead
Biramous appendages in crustaceans
-Two branched
-Can be different structures for swimming and walking
-Endo and exopods
Modifications in Daphnea (waterflea)
-Small abdomen fused with thorax
-Thoracic appendages for food collection and current generation (for respiration)
-Surrounded by carapace
-Second antennae for swimming
-Undergo sexual reproduction if conditions are harsh, but usually asexually produce identical females
Modifications in barnacles (e.g. Balanus)
-No abdomen
-Live in shell
-Extend thoracic appendages when tide is low to collect food and pass to mouth
-Close valves when tide is gone
-Mostly hermaphrodite
-Largest penis to body ratio in animal kingdom to broadcast sperm far
-Used to be thought to be molluscs
-Goose barnacles get name because used to be thought to be baby geese
-Can be parasitic
Parasitic barnacles
-Sacculina
-Attack and penetrate crabs, castrating males
-Changes infected crab behaviour, feminising males
-Crab ‘wafts’ baby parasites away, as a female crab would do to offspring
Fiddler crabs
-Massive claws
-Found that females found males with biggest and fastest moving claw the most attractive
-Males tolerate inferior males to hang around burrow to make self-esteem more attractive
-Lure females into burrows
Myriapods
-Centipedes
-Millipedes
-Tracheal system, branching tubules with access to outside
-Move air through diffusion and muscular contractions
-Malphigian tubules remove substances from haemolymph
Centipede basic structure
-Don’t all actually have 100s of legs, some known to have up to 300
-Dorsal-ventrally flattened
-Mandibles for processing food
-First thoracic appendage modified to form a poison claw
-Predacious
-Vary in size
-Usually simple eyes but can have complex structures
Millipedes
-Detritovores, feed on leaf material
-More spherical
-Like centipede, not well adapted to land so live in damp soils
-‘1000s of legs’ but most is 750
-Get name as every two segments are fused together, with 4 appendages on each segment, giving impression of lots of legs
-Important for recycling nutrients within soil
-Vulnerable due to no protective claws, so produce deterrents such as hydrogen cyanide, produced from repugnatorial glands
-Some animals exploit millipede chemicals, irritating millipedes and using their toxins as an insecticide against mosquitos etc (can also get high)
Hemichordate features
-Coelomates (deuterostomes)
-‘Half chordates’ as thought to have similarities to chordates, but not fully chordates
-Examples include enteropneusts (acorn worms) and pterobranchs (sea angels)
Chordate features
-Notochord
-Dorsal, hollow nerve cord at top
-Pharyngeal (gill) slits
-Post-anal tail
-Endostyle
Notochord
-Like a rod coated in a fibrous sheet
-Provides form of support
-Can form a base for muscular contractions
Pharyngeal slits
-Found in pharynx (first part of digestive system)
-Used for feeding in invertebrates
-Vertebrates that retain these (not humans) use these for respiration
Endostyle
-Found in invertebrates
-Concentrates iodine and provides music (????)
-Homologous as thyroid
Enteropneusts
-Delicate
-Found buried in mud
-Distinctive structures (proboscis, collar and trunk)
-Vary in size and can be deep-sea or shallow-sea
-Use proboscis to collect food
-Gill slits used for respiration
-Has stomochord to support heart and excretory syst
-Larval stage (tornaria) is similar to echinoderm
-Nerve net (no dorsal hollow nerve cord)
Nerve net in enteropneusts
-Some concentration of nervous tissue in collar region
-More complicated
-Hollow
Pterobranchs
-Few mm long
-Sessile, live in colonies
-Proboscis, collar and trunk
-Lophophore used for food collection
-Some have gill slits
-Simple nerve net
-Stomochord supports oral shield
-Covered in tunic
-Can be traced back to graptolites (Cambrian-Devonian)
Nervous system of pterobranchs
-Diffused nerve net
-Not well studied so could be hollow
Hemichordates resemblance to chordates?
-No notochord
-No tail
-Nervous tissue can be hollow but not dorsal nerve cord
-Collect food externally
-BUT do have gills (pax gene expression in pharynx is the same)
Hemichordates resemblance to echinoderms?
-Similar larval stages
-Similar nervous systems (but acorn worm expresses genes in same order as chordates)
-Gill slits (homolazoans) present in ancient echinoderms
Chordates
-Vertebrates
-Phylogeny shows similarities with other deuterostomes BUT with dorsoventral axis inversion (completely upside down compared to other animals, even genes produced)
Invertebrate chordates
-Urochordates (tunicates)
-Cephalochordates (lancelets - amphioxus)
Urochordates
-Covered in tunic
-Have a ‘tadpole’ larval stage
-Sometimes called sea squirt, as water is released from siphons
-Most common group are ascidians
-Deep sea carnivorous tunicates siphons are modified to form traps
Examples of tunicates
-Botryllus sp (star tunicate)
-Colonial sea squirts with larger bodies and siphons
-Salps are solitary and non-sessile, and swim to bottom of sea during day to avoid predation
-Larvacea/appendicularia stay in ‘larval’ stage for whole life
-Deep sea carnivorous tunicates siphons are modified to form traps