Birds Flashcards
Birds are classified by
All birds belong to the kingdom animalia, phylum chordata and class aves
There are 29 different orders within this class
Make up the different ‘types’ of birds with different traits
Ex. waterfowl vs parrots vs falcons
Further subdivided into different families, genus and species
Galliformes are and look like
Landfowl
Heavy bodied, ground feeding birds
Chickens, turkeys, grouse
Males are typically more colourful
Typically 4 toes- 3 large in front, 1 small in back
Anseriformes are and look like
Waterfowl
Over 170 species in 3 families
Include ducks, geese, swans, etc
Adapted for aquatic life at the water surface
Webbed feet
Ratites are and look like
A ratite is any of a diverse group (includes several different orders) of large, flightless birds, most of them now extinct
Unlike flighted birds, they have no keel on their sternum (which is flat) so they lack a strong anchor for wing muscles (some other flightless birds still have a keel, however it is underdeveloped)
Poorly developed wings, will develop legs
Have 2,3, or 4 toes all point forward
Include the ostrich, emu, kiwi, rhea, and cassowary
raptors are
s
Diurnal (active during the day) or nocturnal (active during the night)
Multiple families in 3 orders
A bird of prey or raptor is a bird that hunts for food primarily using its talons
Carnivores
They display a characteristic curved tip to their beak and have superb vision
What are the 3 families of raptors
Falconiformes
Accipitriformes
Strigiformes
Psittaciformes (psittacines) are and look like
aka parrots
Most pet birds belong to the parrot order psittaciformes (psittacines)
Almost 400 different species in over 90 different genera
Overhanging, strong, curved upper beak
Both upper and lower beaks are mobile and sensitive
Opposing toes (2 by 2)
Eyes are placed high and wide on the skull
A uniquely wide field of vision
Tropical or subtropical
Why are parrots prized by people
Prized by their
Brightly coloured plumage due to special pigments and feather arrangements
Many species can talk
Intelligence
Parrots: diet and nesting
Most parrots eat
Seeds
Nuts
Especially those with very strong beals
Fruits
Buds
Other plant material
Most nest in hollow trees are nesting boxes
Parrots are divided into 3 ‘Superfamilies’
True parrots
Cockatoos
New Zealand parrots
What birds are true parrots
Lories and lorikeets
Nectar eating, brushed tongue
Macaws, conures, eclectus parrots, amazon parrots, african gray parrots, budgerigar and many others from africa/australasia
How do you know if the bird is a cackatoo
The only crested parrots
Cockatoos look like
Crested
Mobile
Raised for display
Not as colourful as other parrots
Where are cockatoos from and how many species are there
Native to Australasia
21 different species of cockatoos (eg. umbrella, Sulfur Crested, Goffins, Cockatiels)
These are not breeds, but truly different species
Cockatiel is
The smallest and easiest to keep of the cockatoos
Live in pairs or small groups in the wild
Popular
Difference between male and female cockatiels
Adult males are more brightly coloured
Females have grey faces
Differences only visible after the first moult
Newer “fancy cockatiels” may not be able to distinguish
When do cockatiels crests erect
When standing
During mating
When aroused
Lories and lorikeets characteristics
Live in trees
Feed on nectar and soft fruits
Colourful
From Australasia
Characteristics
Small to medium sized
Brush tipped tongue
Problems with lories and lorikeets
Messy eaters
Territorial so may bite
African greys are
Large parrots: african grey parrot
Feather dander gives a fine white powder coating to beaks
Endangered
Difference between male and female ecletus parrots
Females are red
More likely to bite
Males are green
Characteristics of Eclectus parrots
Quieter and less active than other birds
Long digestive tract require fiber
Eat fruits, figs, bubs
Australasia
macaws look like and characteristics
Larger beaks and longer tails then other parrots
Very strong beaks: crack hard, large nuts
Also eat fruits, leaves, flowers and stems
Active and vocal
Require a large cage
Make a lot of feces
Found in the americas
Budgerigar are
Small
Active and social
Sex based on the colour of the Cere
Native to Australia
Can have a huge vocabulary
1 000+ words
“Puck” - world record at 1 728
Lovebirds are
Small parrot
Affectionate
Monogamous, pairs sit together for long periods
Need a buddy
Eat fruit, vegetables, grasses and seeds
African
Passeriformes (passerines) are
The largest order of birds
Half of all bird species
The “perching birds”
Includes out nature wild songbirds as well as Canaries and Finches which are kept as pets
Passer domesticus is the House Sparrow
Three front toes, one hind toa
Some raptors also have thai arrangement
Finches are
Zebra finches
Very common in Australasia
Colonial seed eaters
Song birds
How often should birds spend with owner
Most species require enrichment
1-2 hours a day with owner
Why do birds destroy theri feathers
Many species destroy their own feathers if bored
Feather picking is one of the most common reasons we see parrots in the clinic
Usually behavioural (boredom, frustration, poor socialisation early in life, etc)
Occasionally can see medical reasons (mites, skin disease, injury, etc)
Feather picking in small birds is more likely to have a medical reason
What can birds do if not handled frequently
Most will bite if not handled frequently or are poorly socialized
Parrots have an incredibly strong beak- can break fingers
Bird cages should include
At least large enough for the bird to fully stretch its wings and actively move around
The bigger the better
At least two perches of different thickness
Avoid sandpaper
Real branches are great
Ladders
Toys (rotate the selection)
Often hav a grated floor, COVERED with beddings as part of the play/exercise area
Good covering so do not damage claws (newspaper works well)
How should you give water to birds and why
Free choice water
Water bowl
Will get soiled by droppings
May be used as a bath or to wet food
So change it frequently
May also teach bird to use a sipper bottle
Should still have bathing area
Or mist with spray bottle
How to feed a bird
Try to find ways to have birds forage for food (enrichment)
Bird seeds can be a problem
-Rarely a balanced diet
-Too high in fat and deficient in nutrients
Formulated food (pellets) appropriate to size and type of bird. For parrots
-Feed about 70-80% of diet pellets
-Add fresh fruit and vegetables to 20-30% of diet
-Wash or peel it first
What to do when your bird is out of their cage
Close all doors and windows before letting a bird out of cage
May fly into a window (cover with a shade)
Turn off fans and stove tops
Remove other pets (cats)
Cover aquariums and toilets
Very sensitive to gasses and scents
No smoking, aerosol sprays, dust (construction) strong cleaning products,etc
Skin of birds
Epidermis
Thin, flat epithelial cells that produce keratin
Required for feathers and outer sheath of beak and claws
Dermis
Thicker, tough fibrous connective tissue
Storage for fat
Smooth muscles move feather follicles
Heat regulation
Glands in birds
No sweat glands in birds
Uropygial gland
Bird beaks
Derivatives of a birds skin
Upper and lower mandible covered with a horny keratin layer
Grows continuously
Very in hardness and flexibility, depending on function
Bird claws
Ends of each toe possess horny sheath derived from specialized scales
Grow continuously
Species differ in type of claws
Perching habits
Methods of procuring food
Feathers are made up of
Outgrowths of skin, nonliving
Made of protein
Sensations only at the base
5 functions of feathers
Flight
Protection
Thermoregulation
Camouflage
Communication behaviours
Types of feathers
countor feathers
semiplume
down
powder down
filoplume
bristles
Contour feathers are and used for
Most visible feathers
Give shape to a bird
Most compact microstructure
Calamsu
Rachis /shaft
Vane
Barbs barbules, hooklets
Semiplume feathers are and used for
Commonly found under contour feathers especially along sides, neck and back
Provide insulation and also flexibility and buoyancy in water birds
Central rachis with free bards (lack barbules and hooklets)
Down feathers look like and are used for
Soft and fluffy, located next to the skin also function in insulation
No true rachis/shaft, simply a calamus with free barbs
Powder down feathers look like and used for
(specialized type of down feather)
Unusual as they never stop growing, they also disintegrate at the tip creating a waxy powder
Thai powder is spread throughout the plumage through preening
Helps clean and waterproof other feathers
Highly developed in birds that don’t have a uropygial gland
Filoplume feathers look like and used for
Sensory or decorative function
Elongated rachis want barbs at the distal portion
Bristle feathers look like and used for
Modified contour feathers
Thought to serve as a sense of touch
Location depends upon species
Long tapered rachis; few (or no) barbs (may or may not have barbules)
Location of feathers
Feathers do not originate from the entire body
Feathers overlap each other and laid down in tracts with areas of bare skin in between
These bare areas are called apteria
Moulting is
Process of feather replacement
Occurs in a species-specific pattern
Allows bird to continue normal activities
Usually replacement is symmetrical
1 or 2 pairs of flight feathers moulted at a time
Major annual moult timed: often in the fall
Waterfowl lose all their feathers at once following the breeding season
Feathers develop from
Develop from papillae in feather tracts of dermis
A growing feather is
a blood feather
Newly developing feather pushes old feather out
Feather emerges, covered by periderm
Periderm removed by preening
Blood vessel from dermis reach into new feather
When feather is full grown, blood dries up, and rachis is pinched closed
How and why to clip feathers
Objective is to clip wing feathers so that birds cannot fly (no lift) but can still glide (to land safely from a perch)
Trim 5-7 flight feathers under the coverts
Leaves a smooth appearance
Can trim the outermost feathers or leave 2 or more outermost primary feathers intact
Never trim blood feathers, or the feather on either side
Feather damage can be caused by
External parasites chew and consume parts of feather vanes, creating weak points
Damage also from daily wear and tear
Fault bar= stress bar
Weakened area on feather vane where barbs lack barbules
Feather is stressed during its growth when blood flow is interrupted
Most common stressor is poor diet
feather picking is and treatmetn
Disorders among captive psittacines (parrots, cockatiels, budgies) and sometimes imprinted raptors (hawks, falcons)
Treatment: cure/rule out medical cause and enrich environment
Causes of feather picking
Can be caused by boredom or disease:
Parasites
Bacterial or fungal infection
Toxins
If small birds (budgies, cockatiels, etc) are feather picking, it is more likely to a medical cause
If larger birds are feather picking it is ALMOST ALWAYS behavioural
Skeletal system of birds
Highly specialized framework to support both walking and flying
Modifications allow for flight and walking
Reduction in number of bones
Fusion of some bones to form plates
Loss of internal bone matrix
Some bones hollow and filled with air spaces
Bird skulls
Bones thinner than in other animals
Jaw extended into keratinized bill
Large eye sockets bordered by sclerotic ring
Small portion of skull devoted to olfactory system
Bird CV
Number greater than in mammals for greater neck flexibility
Bird TV
Rigid to provide strong support for rib cage
Uncinate process overlaps adjoining rear ribs
Bird L and SV
Fused vertebrae from bony plate to support legs= synsacrum
Bird CV
First few mobile to allow movement of tail feathers
Pygostyle= fused bony structure that supports tail feathers
Bird sternum
Large and concave
Protects the chest
Acts as place or origin of flight muscles= keel
bird shoulder joint
Shoulder joint is complex and consists of 3 bones: the coracoid, scapula and clavicle (wishbone)
What is a birds clavicle called
Fused clavicles are called furcula
Wings of a bird
Joint at elbow allows movement only parallel to wing
Patagium (propatagium) = web of skin
Extends from shoulder to wrist, assist in aerodynamics
Alula bone (1st digit) originates from wrist
Carries the alula feathers (steering feathers)
Metacarpal bones (fused to form major and minor metacarpals) join with digits (2,3, and 4)
Help support primary flight feathers
Bird pelvic girdle is
Provides a rigid framework to support the legs
3 paired bones join where leg attaches to body
Ileum, ischium, pubis
Distal ends not fused
Provide room to facilitate egg-laying
Femur of a bird
Attaches to pelvis at hip joint
Directed forward to knee
Greater and lesser trochanters at site of muscle attachments
Tibiostarus and fibula of birds
Some tarsal bones fused with tibia to form the tibiotarsus
Tarsometatarsus of birds
Some tarsal bones fused with the metatarsals to form the tarsometatarsus
Single bone of ‘hock’ spans from ankle to digits
Metatarsal pad of birds
Bottom of foot, surrounded by 2,3, or 4 toes
Ansidocatyl- one toa faces to rear, other 3 face forward
Zygodactyl- 2nd and 3rd toes face forward, 1st and 4th toe face backwards
Third toe is usually the longest
What do captive raptors tend to get
Captive raptors and some pet birds have a tendency to develop ‘bumblefoot’, which is an infection of the feet
Usually caused by staph infection
Causes severe swelling, ulceration and discomfort
Linked to perches that are all the same size, too rough, or not rough enough or long claws- change the perches
Treat the antibiotics and Preparation H!
Classification of muscles of birds
Many placed ventrally, near center of gravity
Skeletal muscles have white or red muscle fiber or combination of both
Wing muscles
Leg muscles
Muscles of the head and neck
White muscle fibers in birds
Thick, low blood supply, little myoglobin, use stores of glycogen
Found in flight muscles of short distance fliers
Exhausts quickly
Red muscle fibers in birds
Thin, rich blood supply, fat, myoglobin, mitochondria
Found in flight muscles of long distance fliers
Wing muscles in birds
Pairs are each responsible for a specific action
Raising or depressing the leading edge of the wing
Extending or flexing the wing
Controlling movements of the alula bone
Wing- large wing muscle is the pectoralis (located in the same position as in other domestic species)
Because of its size and location it is the muscle of choice for administering IM injections
What muscles are in charge of raising or depressing the leading edge of the wing
Pectoralis muscle
Supracoracoideus muscle
The pectoralis depresses the wing and is larger. Feathers separate on the upswing so less effort is required
Pulling the wing forward or backward
Leg muscles of birds
Majority close to center of gravity
Primarily located over the femur
Controlled movements of toes though long tendons
Perching reflex
Claws close as leg flexes
Allows birds to remain perched while sleeping
Muscles of birds head and neck
Extend of jaw muscles vary, depending on birds diet
Neck muscles allow movement to different directions
Hatching muscle used to help chick break the shell open
Atropine after hatching
Brain of birds
Large in proportion to its body size
Locations for control centres similar to mammals
Relatively large for vision and hearing
Relatively small for taste, touch and smell
Vision center of bird brain
Highly developed
Large part of skull devoted to housing and protecting the eyes
Shape of eyes dependent on the orbits
Diurnal birds have round or relatively flat eyes
Nocturnal species have tubular eyes
Limited movement in some species, owl turn heat not eyes
Anatomy of bird eye
Fibrous tunic: sclera, cornea
Clerotic ring reinforces sclera
Nictitating membrane is a third eyelid- may have a clear center in diving birds so that can see underwater
Uveal tunic: choroid, iris, ciliary muscles
Muscles in the iris are under voluntary control
Pupillary light response
Neural tunic: retina
Vascular pecten distributes nutrition to the ye
Can easily damaged with trauma resulting in hemorrhage
Photoreception for birds
Rods and cones similar to those of mammals
Nocturnal species have more rods than cones
Birds have high level of visual acuity
Reduced number of blood vessel in retina
Numerous photoreceptor cells in retina
Each cone has single connection to a nerve fiber
Some species have a second temporal fovea
Increase binocular vision
Oil droplet in each cone increases color reception
Wide spectrum of light wavelengths are perceived
Ears of birds and located where and have how many chambers
Located on sides of head, behind and slightly below the eyes
3 ear chambers
External ear
- Separated from middle ear via tympanic membrane
Middle ear
- A single bone = columella
Inner ear
A membranous labyrinth
- Cochlea
Hearing in owls
Highly developed hearing in nocturnal owls
Operculum
Asymmetrical ear opening
Large eardrums, columellae, and cochlea
Well developed acoustic centre in hindbrain
Very large number of auditory neurons
How good is a birds taste
Poor sense of taste
Few taste buds scattered on sides of tongue and soft palate
Sensitivities and thresholds are species specific
Bitter, salty, sour
How good is a birds sense of smell
Sense of smell highly variable among species
Important for locating food in carrion eaters
Birds nerve endings for touch
Grandrys corpuscle
Nerve endings prevalent on tongue, palates, and bills of birds
Herbest corpuscle
Nerve endings present in cloaca, legs, wings, uropygial gland, and feather bases
Digestive system of birds
Birds have a fast metabolism
High demand for energy is thus assimilated form food they consume
Birds beaks
Vary with diet
Birds mouth
Hard upper palate, soft lower palate, tongue, salivary gland, taste buds
Soft palate may be enlarged into pouch for temporary food storage
Tongue of birds
Highly muscular in some species
Few muscles, and moved by muscles of jaw apparatus in other species
Birds esophagus
Crop = expansion over infraclavicular space
A place for storage, lubrication and the passage of food
Little digestion occurs
Pigeons and doves: at breeding time, mucosal lining can break down to form “pigeon milk”
Insect eating birds: heavy epithelium protects from insects swallowed alive
Birds stomach sections
Proventriculus
Gizzard = ventriculus
Birds liver
Bilobed, right lobe larger than left
Birds pancreas
Relatively large, especially in fish and grain eaters
Rest in loop of duodenum
Endocrine portion occupies more tissue mass than in mammals
Duodenum of birds
Main organ for digestion and absorption of nutrients
Ceca of birds
Paired sacs at junction of small and large intestines in some species
Role in water reabsorption and in the bacterial fermentation of cellulose
Contents excreted independent of fecal material
LI of birds
Major role is reabsorption of water and minerals
Cloaca of birds and the 3 sections
The end of the digestive tract
3 sections
Coprodeum
Urodeum
Proctodeum
Vent: muscular anus expels waste products = mute
Waste excretion of birds
Waste excreted by the bird is called the mute
Combination of feces and urine
Usually appears as a dark fecal center with white urates around it
Varies by diet
Can also be an indication of disease, therefore bird owners should monitor it carefully
I.e., green mute can indicate chlamydial infection (ZOONOSIS !!!), internal parasites or liver disease
Encourage owners to become familiar with the appearance of the mute when their bird is healthy
Take a photograph for reference
Monitor as an indicator of disease
Tube feeding of birds
Direct feeding tube down the esophagus making sure to avoid the trachea; visualise the back of the throat as you feed to ensure there is no regurgitation
Birds heart looks like and is where in the chest cavity
4 chambered, right side smaller and less muscular
Lies in cranial portion of thoracoabdominal space
Birds blood vessels
Specialized to meet specific demands of avian body:
Large pectoral and brachial arteries
Specialized to meet specific demands of avian body
Renal portal system
Renal portal system of birds
Very important when considering giving injections in the leg
May pass through the portal system first and much of the drug may be eliminated before it can affect the body
This also applies to lizards
There is some controversy about the impact on the efficacy of treatment with hind leg injections, but best avoid unless no other option
Blood flow through a birds body
High demands on circulatory system necessary to maintain relatively fast metabolism
Fast HR
More rapid blood flow
Electrocardiogram for birds
Electrodes placed on wings and legs detect changes in electrical voltage as heart chambers contract and relax
Important tool to monitor patient
Functions of blood for birds
Carry nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to cells
Carry metabolic wastes to lungs and kidneys
Control and prevent disease
Regulate body temp
Erythrocytes= RBC of birds
Oval, nucleated and larger than those of mammals
Formed in bone marrow of adult birds, or in spleen and liver, depending on species
Poses hemoglobin
Total number of cells dependent on
Age, sex, diet, and time of year
Heterophils of birds
Phagocytes
Equivalent to mammalian neutrophil
Round with rod-shaped red-orange granules
Bilobed nucleus with clumped chromatin
Thrombocytes of birds
Nucleated cells that act as platelets
Smaller than RBCs with large, round-oval nucleus
Produced by bone marrow in adult birds
Birds resp system Must act quickly and efficiently because of
fast metabolism
high energy level
birds oral cavity contains
Glottis
Choana
Larynx
trachea of birds
Long
Provides moisture to inhaled air
Aids in production of sound
Coiled in some species
The syrinx of birds
voice box
Enlargement of the trachea above the sternum
Contains muscles, air sacs, vibrating membranes
Vocalization complexity depends on the number of muscles present in the syrinx
Bronchi of birds
Trachea bifurcates into 2 bronchi
Bronchi further divide
Mesobronchi (in lung)
Secondary bronchi = ventrobronchi
Parabrochi
Air capillaries
Site of gas exchange with blood capillaries
Lungs of birds
Small, inelastic
Highly vascularized
Bright red
Attached to thoracic vertebrae and ribs
Air sacs of birds are and functions
9 thin walled, highly vascularized membranes
Connect ot the bronchi
Some extend into bone cavities
Functions
Air reservoirs
Provide warmth and moisture to air
Thermoregulation
Provide buoyancy
Airflow of birds
2 inspirations and 2 expirations are required to transport one pocket of air through entire resp system
Birds have no diaphragm
Key features of avian air flow
Very efficient resp system
No mixing of inspired and expired air
Arrangement of air sacs and capillaries further improves efficiency
Clinical applications
Very rapid response and sensitivity to inhaled anesthetics
Birds are very sensitive to poisonous gasses
The canary in the coal mine
Teflon pans
RR of birds
Rate varies with species, activity level, age, sex, time of day, and outdoor temp
Difficult to use resp rate as diagnostic tool
Smaller birds breathe faster than larger birds
Birds in flight hae higher rate than non flying birds
How do birds loss heat
Bird has no sweat glands
Most heat is eliminated through respiration
Water evaporated through the resp system helps cool overheated birds
Can increase the rate of cooling by panting or fluttering the upper throat patch with an open beak
Other methods of decreasing body temperature include:
Bathing
Decreased activity
Some species (vultures and storks) defecate on their own legs to increase evaporative cooling
Adjust feather position
How do birds raise body temp
Perching on one leg to minimize skin exposure
Tucking head and beak under feathers on back
Shivering
Seeking sheltered roosts
Some species such as hummingbirds can enter a temporary night-time torpor to conserve heat
Countercurrent heat exchange between arteries and veins of legs
Blood vessels are specialized how for thermoregulation of birds
Specialized to meet specific demands of avian body:
System of heat exchange in the lower extremities through network of arteries and veins placed close together
Salt gland of avians is
many marine birds (and turtles) have a special salt gland
Located above each eye
Drain into nostrils
Secrete large amounts of sodium chloride
Help maintain ideal somatic conditions in the body while living and feeding in a high salt environment
Kidneys of birds
Kidneys are large, paired and 3 lobed
Lie flush with the back bone
How do avian kidneys differentiate form mammal kidneys
There is no renal pelvis
Contain 2 types of nephrons: looped and unlooped
Looped tubules are similar to those in mammalian nephrons
Unlooped tubules are similar to reptilian nephrons
Renal portal system allows blood from the hind legs to be filtered through the kidneys or drain directly into vena cava – controlled by a valve
Birds do not have a urinary bladder
Urine composition of avians
Higher concentration of uric acid (urea is predominant in mammals)
Eliminated as a white paste in combination with the fecal material
The fecal material is usually green or brown in color with a ring of white (uric acid)
Why is the composition of avian urine an advantage
This is advantages because more efficient way to get rid of nitrogenous waste
Less water loss
Also allows embryo to store large amounts of nitrogenous waste within the confines of a shell
Wouldn’t be possible if eliminating it through urea- volume too high
Urea is toxic; uric acid is not
Reproduction system of birds
Breeding season often stimulated by increasing day length in parts of the world where seasons are pronounced
Affects hypothalamus and causes increased secretion of gonadotrophic hormones
Non-breeding animals have very small gonads, which increase in size as breeding season approaches
Differentiation of sexes can be difficult outside of breeding season or in species that have little sexual dimorphism
Can use DNA testing
Avian male reproductive tract
Testis are bean shaped and located internally, but sperm are stored in a pouch called the seminal vesicle
Temperature here is about 4 degrees C cooler than body temp – better for sperm survival
The vas deferens carries the sperm to the seminal vesicle and cloaca
How do male birds copulate
Behavior stimulated by androgens (from Leydig or interstitial cells in testes)
Some species (Galliforms, ratites, and ducks) have a grooved penis that assists sperm transfer
Others simply bring cloaca together
Avian female reproductive tract
Left ovary and oviduct develop, but right side is non-functional and undeveloped
Basic ovarian follicle development and ovulation are similar to mammals
The ova are discharged from the ovary, picked up by the infundibulum and then passed through the oviduct.
As the egg passes through the oviduct and uterus it is surrounded by layers of albumin (egg white) the shell membrane, shell, and pigments.
The egg is then passed through the cloaca.
Oviduct: has 5 sections, each contributing to the development of an ‘egg’
What are the 5 sections of the birds oviduct
Infundibulum
Magnum
Isthmus
Uterus (aka shell gland)
Vagina
Egg binding is
Fully formed egg fails to pass from uterus to cloaca
During egg laying the intestinal exit is blocked so affected birds often stop passing feces
Depressed, off feed, penguin like gait
Medical emergency
Treated with anti-inflammatories (Preparation H, baths, calcium supplements and manipulation; sometimes may have to collapse egg)
Prevention of egg binding
Avoid obesity
Watch out for vent pecking and separate affected birds
Make sure adequate calcium in diet
Clutch of birds is
Clutch: the number of eggs laid and incubated
Number varies by species (from 1-2 to as many as 20).
What affects the amount of eggs per clutch
Determinate layers: predetermined by number of follicles developing on ovary.
Indeterminate layers (most birds): eggs are continuously produced until a set number is reached in the nest (if eggs are removed, they will keep laying indefinitely)
In these species the signal to stop includes visual, tactile, and hormonal influences indicating a full clutch
Endangered species: remove initial eggs and rear artificially.
How often might eggs be layed
Eggs may be laid every day, every other day, or at 4-5 day intervals
When do birds start incubating eggs
Some species begin incubating at once, resulting in chicks hatching at varying times
Other species only begin incubation once all eggs are laid
Results in synchronous development of chicks
Hatch at the same time
Incubation of eggs is
Eggs need to be kept warm and humid
Female develops a ‘brood patch’
A featherless patch of skin on belly where skin folds, thickening, and blood circulation create a ‘heat pad’ for the eggs
Time for incubation varies by species – generally longer for larger birds
18 days for Budgies
Chick Classification
Precocial
Semiprecocial
Semialtricial
Altricial
How do chicks hatch form an egg
Requires a specialized egg tooth on the bill and hypertrophied neck muscles – “hatching muscle”
4 classifications of chicks, depending on feather cover, open or closed eyes, and mobility:
How to restrain a parrot
Most important to restrain head/beak
Thumb and first 1, 2 or 3 fingers around base of skull/neck; other fingers just rest – do not squeeze thorax
Remember to extend neck
How to restrain raptors
most important to restrain feet/talons
In large birds, one hand on each leg; smaller birds – index finger between feet, thumb on one side and the rest of your fingers on the other; fingers/palm points down away from bird
Where to collect blood on birds
Most common blood collection locations:
Waterfowl
- Medial Metatarsal Vein (c)
Parrots, Songbirds
- Right jugular (a)
Raptors, Sometimes Parrots
- Brachial Vein (b)
What are falcons and are they nocternal
Falconiformes (diurnal)
What are acciptriformes and when are they active
(diurnal)
Eagles and hawks and some vultures
What are strigiformes and when are they active
(nocturnal)
Typical owls
What is the uropygial gland and what does it do
preen gland
On dorsal surface at upper base of tail
Secretes oily fatty substance
Oil waterproof feathers
Varies in size with species
Completely lacking in some species
Some parrots, flightless birds
These often prefer dust to water baths
What does the proventricles of the avian stomach do
glandular stomach
Chemical digestion begins here (pepsin and hydrochloric acid)
What does the gizzard of the avian stomach do
ventriculus= muscular stomach
Striated muscles grind food
Ingested grit aids in grinding food
Undigested food ground into a pellet by some species
Pellet is regurgitated
What does the coprodeum do
receives excrement from intestine
What does the urodeum do
receives discharge from kidneys and genital ducts
What does the proctodeum do
stores excrement and eliminates it)
What does the vent
Vent: muscular anus expels waste products = mute
What does the infundibulum do
: catches ovum as it is released from ovary. Fertilization occurs here
What does the magnum do
secretes albumin
What does the isthmus do
secretes inner and outer shell membranes
What does the uterus do in birds
(aka shell gland): secretes watery albumin, the shell, and pigmentation (egg spends most of time here)
What does the vagina do for birds
secretes mucus for egg laying and stores sperm for hours to days
What is a precocial chick
i.e. ducks and geese
Downy feathers, open eyes, mobile
What is a semiprecoccial chick
i.e. gulls and terns
Downy feathers, open eyes, may be mobile, but remain in nest dependant on parents
What is a semialtricial chick
i.e. hawks and owls
Downy feathers, open (hawks) or closed eyes (owls), not mobile
What are altricial chicks
i.e. songbirds
Little to no feathers, closed eyes, not mobile
