Biotechnology and Evidence for Evolution Flashcards
What is genetic engineering
Allows foreign modified DNA to be introduced into another cells
What are the implications of genetic engineering
Can replace fault genes with healthy ones
Can produce synthetic hormones such as insulin for diabetics
Can produce vaccines
Types of genetic engineering
Both types are cut by restriction enzymes
- Straight cut and blunt ends
- Staggered cuts and sticky ends
Step 1 of genetic engineering
Isolate gene
Cut the gene using restriction enzyme at restriction site
Step 2 of genetic engineering
Isolate a plasmid
Cut the plasmid with same restriction enzyme
Step 3 of genetic engineering
Sticky ends and plasmid DNA anneal to each other
Spliced together by ligase
Step 4 of genetic engineering
Bacteria takes up recombinant plasmid
Copies of recombinant plasmid are made
Copies placed into host cells
Host cells produce protein the gene codes for
What is electrophoresis
Profiling technique
Used to determine individuals DNA profile
Step 1 of electrophoresis
DNA fragments placed into cavities
Step 2 of electrophoresis
Electric current passed through gel
Step 3
DNA moves through to positive electrode from negative electrode
Step 4
Smaller fragments move fast
Larger fragment move slower and shorter
Forms bands of gel
Step 5
Forms a DNA fingerprint
Implications of Electrophoresis
Tracing ancestry
Forensic science
Identifying hereditary diseases
Definition of DNA sequencing
The determination of the precise order of nucleotides in a sample of DNA
What is DNA sequencing
When building a DNA strand each new nucleotide is bonded to the hydroxyl group of the previous strand,
no hydroxyl group to bond to, no additional nucleotides can be added, so chain is terminated
Step 1 of DNA sequencing
Double stranded DNA molecule is extracted
Step 2 of DNA sequencing
Denatured at 90-96 degrees
split into two
only work with the template strand
Step 3 of DNA sequencing
A primer is then annealed to the template strand
Step 4 of DNA sequencing
The copies of the unknown DNA strand are made using 4 reactions mixtures
→ Template DNA strand with primers attached
→ DNA polymerase
→ Large amount of normal deoxynucleotides (dNTPs)
→ Small amount of fluorescently dyed synthetic nucleotides called Dideoxynucleotides (ddNTPs) that don’t have the hydroxyl groups present
Step 5 of DNA sequencing
DNA polymerase works in the reaction mixtures by adding nucleotides to the primer to complete the complementary strand
Step 6 of DNA sequencing
DNA polymerase continues to add free nucleotides until a synthetic dideoxynucleotide is used without the OH group which terminates the elongation of the sequence
Step 7 of DNA sequencing
We are left with a range of strands of varying lengths, all ending with one of the 4 possible fluorescently dyed dideoxynucleotides
→ This allows us to overlay the strands of various lengths to reveal the complete sequence of bases of the unknown strand
How to determine the sequence
multiple copies are added to an electrophoresis gel
a current is passed through the samples of varying lengths they move away from the negative electrode towards the positive electrode
Implications of DNA sequencing
point mutations, insertions and deletions can be detected
Diseases which can be determined such as cystic fibrosis
Definition of Polymerase Chain Reaction
Used to multiply segments of DNA through a series of repeated cycles
Step 1 of PCR
Denaturing
Solution is heated (94-98) degrees
The heat disrupts the hydrogen bonds causes separation of the DNA strands into single strands
Step 2 of PCR
Annealing
Temperature reduced to 50-65 degrees to allow a primer, to join the complementary strand
At this temperature the primers anneal with the complementary sequence of DNA to start the replication from taq polymerase
Forward and reverse primers are needed for both sides as they are designed to bracket the DNA region to be
Step 3 of PCR
Extending
Temperature rose again to 72 degrees
Taq polymerase binds to primers
The Taq polymerase synthesises new DNA strand
Segments of single stranded DNA are replicated
Applications of PCR
DNA profiling
DNA from fossils can be amplified
Detect hereditary diseases
Gene Therapy
Aims to treat genetic abnormalities by replacing fault gene with healthy gene
Cell Replacement
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that are capable of mitotic divisions for long periods of time. stem cells are used in genetic engineering
Gene therapy and cell replacement
Stem cells is taken from patient
Mutant gene replaced with normal gene
Cells multiply
Cells transferred back into patient
Human Genome Project
Enables us to identify mutation in a gene
Enabled us to identify the abnormal protein causing the disease
Gene therapy and genetic engineering are treatments which help genetic diseases
Ethical Considerations
Autonomy, respect the right for an individual to be tested, if tested, to know and share the information
Confidentiality, the genetic information is treated sensitively
Equity, the right to fait and equal treatment regardless of genetic information
Comparative DNA studies
In each species, the sequence of nucleotides varies. If more similar the DNA sequence then the organisms are more closely relate and are more likely to have a common ancestor.
Example of Comparative DNA studies
Endogenous Retrovirus, a viral sequence that has become apart of an organism’s genome
Comparative Mitochondrial DNA studies
The higher the degree of similarity between mtDNA of two individuals the closer their evolutionary relationship
Example of Comparative Mitochondrial DNA studies
MtDNA
Comparative Protein Sequence Studies
Every protein has a number of amino acids. Similarity of amino acid sequence is evidence of close evolutionary relationship
Example of comparative protein sequence studies
Ubiquitous protein, Cytochrome C which performs basic tasks for cellular energy. To compare Cytochrome C sequences they need to be aligned so that the maximum number of positions containing the same amino acid can be determined. The more similarity between the molecules, the more recently they have diverged from a common ancestor
Phylogenetic Trees
Comparative studies allow scientists to work out the evolutionary relationship between groups of organisms
Phylogenetic tree represents the evolutionary relationships between organisms derived from a common ancestor
The ancestral organism forms the base of the tree and these organisms that have arised from it are placed on the ends of the branches
Comparative Embryology Studies
Comparative embryology studies will show how the closely related organisms will show similar anatomical development in the embryonic stages of life which will show they all share a common ancstor
Example of Comparative Embryology Studies
In all vertebrae species:
- Embryonic gill pouches
- Presence of a tail
- Two chambered heart
Comparative Homologous Structures
Organs that are very similar in structure but have different functions due to environmental selection pressure. Organisms possessing homologous structures that are similar are more likely to share a common ancestor
Example of Homologous Structures
Forelimb of the vertebrae
Comparative Vestigial Organs
The structures which are the remains of organs that were required in ancestral form. These organs are no longer essential. These organs suggest ancestral relationship with organisms that have functional forms of the same organs
Example of Vestigial Organs
- Nictitating membrane
- Third molars
- Appendix
