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College > Bioscience > Flashcards

Bioscience Flashcards

1
Q

Skins Function of Protection

A

Physical/Chemical Barrier

Eg. Melanin Protects from UV damage

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2
Q

Skins Function of Protection (2)

A

Immunity : Immune cells in

  • Epidermis (Langerhans Cells)
  • Dermis (Macrophages)
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3
Q

Skins Function of Sensation

A

Receptors detect pain, heat, pressure, vibration

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4
Q

Skins Metabolic Function

A

Synthesis of Vitamin D

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5
Q

Skins Function of Temperature Regulation

A

Sweat glands,

thermoreceptors,

dilation or construction of blood vessels

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6
Q

What Skin Excretes

A

Urea

Ammonia

Uric Acid

Pheromones

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7
Q

Epidermis Cell Types

A

Keratinocytes (90%)

Langerhans Cells : Immune Cells

Melanocytes : Produce Melanin

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8
Q

Epidermis Sublayers

A

5 Sublayers : No blood vessels - able to shave

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9
Q

Dermis Cell Types

A

Fibroblasts : Produce Collagen

Macrophages : Immune Cells

Mast Cells : Release histamine during allergies, inflammation

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10
Q

Dermis Sublayers and what they contain

A

2 Sublayer Contain :

  • Blood Vessels
  • Lymph Vessels
  • Sweat Glands
  • Hairs
  • Arrector Pili Muscles
  • Sebaceous Glands
  • Sensory Nerve Endings
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11
Q

Hypodermis or Subcutaneous describe layers and what it contains

A

Deepest Layer

Contains : Collagen & Fat cells

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12
Q

Role of Hypodermis or Subcutaneous

A

Conserve body’s heat ; protects body by acting as a shock absorber

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13
Q

Directional Planes

A

Midsaggital Plane : 👁 | 👁

Coronal (Frontal Plane) : 🍑 | 🗣

Transverse Plane : 👕
➖
👖

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14
Q

Superior (cranial)

A

Above; towards the head and upper part of a structure or body

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15
Q

Inferior (caudal)

A

Below ; away from the head or towards the lower part of the structure or body

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16
Q

Anterior (ventral)

A

In front of ; toward or at the front of the body

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17
Q

Posterior (dorsal)

A

Behind ; toward or at the backside of the body

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18
Q

Medial

A

On the inner side of ; toward or at the middle of the body

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19
Q

Lateral

A

On the other side ; away from the midline of the body

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20
Q

Intermediate

A

Between a more medial and a more lateral structure

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21
Q

Proximal

A

Close to the origin or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

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22
Q

Distal

A

Further form the point of origin or point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

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23
Q

Superficial (external)

A

Toward or at the surface of the body

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24
Q

Deep (internal)

A

Away from the surface of the body

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25
Q

Muscle Functions

A
  • Movement
  • Posture
  • Stability of joints
  • Generating Heat
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26
Q

Muscle Properties

A
  • Get Excited
  • Contract (shortens and thickens when stimulated)
  • Extension (stretches without damage)
  • Elasticity (returns to original shape)
  • Adaptable
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27
Q

Skeletal System Functions

A
  • Movement
  • Support
  • Protection
  • Blood Cell Formation
  • Storage of Mineral Eg. Calcium
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28
Q

Axial Skeleton

A
  • Skull
  • Sternum (breast bone)
  • Ribs
  • Spine (vertebral column)
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29
Q

Appendicular System

A
  • Shoulder bones & Upper Limbs

- Pelvis & Lower Limbs

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30
Q

Joints (articulations)

A

Weakest parts of the skeleton

Articulation : Where 2 bones come together

3 subtypes of joints

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31
Q

Fibrous Joints

A

Bones linked by fibrous material

  • No or very limited movement
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32
Q

Cartilaginous Joints

A

The connection between the bones is made up of cartilage which acts as a shock absorber

Generally, limited amount of movement

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33
Q

Synovial Joints

A

There is a small space between the bones which contains synovial fluid

Highly Moveable

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34
Q

Number of bones in adult Skeleton

A

206 Bones

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35
Q

Spongy bone structure

A

Contains red bone marrow needed for blood cell production

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36
Q

Compact bone structure

A

Contains yellow bone marrow

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37
Q

Bone shape categories

A
  • Long
  • Short
  • Flat
  • Irregular
  • Sesamoid
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38
Q

Example of long shaped bone

A

Femur

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39
Q

Example of short bone

A

Carpals

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40
Q

Example of flat bone

A

Sternum

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41
Q

Example of irregular bone

A

Vertebrae

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42
Q

Example of sesamoid bone

A

Patella

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43
Q

Functions of Joints

A
  • Give skeleton mobility

- Hold the skeleton together

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44
Q

Function of fibrous joints

A

Stability

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45
Q

Example of fibrous joints

A

Joints between the skull bones

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46
Q

Example of cartilaginous joints

A

In between the vertebrae of the spinal column

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47
Q

Most common joints in the human body

A

Synovial joints

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48
Q

Synovial joints all have

A
  • A Capsule
  • A Synovial Membrane
  • Cartilage
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49
Q

A Capsule

A

Collagen structure surrounding the entire joint

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50
Q

Synovial Membrane

A

The inner layer of the capsule which secretes synovial fluid (a lubricating liquid)

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51
Q

Cartilage of synovial joints

A

Hyaline which pads the ends of the articulating bones

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52
Q

Subtypes of muscle

A
  • Skeletal Muscle
  • Cardiac Muscle
  • Smooth Muscle
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53
Q

Skeletal muscle

A
  • Cylindrical fibre
  • Striated
  • Voluntary
  • Many nuclei
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54
Q

Function of Skeletal muscle

A
  • Controls movement, position, heat production
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55
Q

Cardiac muscle

A
  • Branched Fibre
  • Striated
  • Involuntary
  • One Nucleus
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56
Q

Function of cardiac muscle

A

Pumps blood around the body

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57
Q

Smooth muscle

A
  • Spindle Shaped fibre
  • Not Striated
  • Involuntary
  • One Nucleus
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58
Q

Function of Smooth muscle

A
  • Alters size of organs, blood vessels

- Pushes substances through the ducts/tubes of the body

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59
Q

Matter definition

A

Anything that occupies space & has mass

Made up of molecules

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60
Q

Molecules

A

Composed of 1 or more smaller units called atoms

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61
Q

Atoms

A

Composed of protons, electrons & neutrons

At the core of each atoms is nucleus

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62
Q

Electrons

A

Negatively charged and surround the nucleus at a distance

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63
Q

Atomic number

A

Number of protons in the nucleus

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64
Q

Atomic weight (mass)

A

Number of protons & neutrons combined

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65
Q

Element

A

A chemical substance whose atoms are all of the same pure substances

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66
Q

4 elements make up 96% of the human body

A
  • Oxygen
  • Carbon
  • Hydrogen
  • Nitrogen
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67
Q

Trace elements (mineral salts)

A
  • Calcium (Ca)
  • Phosphorus (P)
  • Potassium (K)
  • Chlorine (Cl)
  • Sodium (Na)
  • Iron (Fe)
  • Magnesium (Mg)
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68
Q

Compounds

A

When different types of atoms combine

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69
Q

Compound containing carbon

A

Organic Compounds ;

all other compounds are inorganic

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70
Q

An atom is inert / chemically unreactive if:

A
  • The outer shell has the maximum number of electrons allowed
  • Stable proportion of this maximum number

Eg. Helium

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71
Q

Atoms will come together to:

A
  • Take electrons from another atom
  • Give away it’s spare electrons
  • Share Electrons
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72
Q

Covalent Bonds

A

Form when atoms share their electrons

  • Strong & Stable bond

Eg. H20

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73
Q

Ionic Bonding

A

Form when electrons are transferred from one atom to another

Atoms stick together as carry opposite charge

  • Weaker bonds

Eg. NaCl (table salt)

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74
Q

Ions

A

Atoms that have become charged as a result of the loss or gain of electrons

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75
Q

Cations

A

Positively charged ions

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76
Q

Anions

A

Negatively charged ions

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77
Q

Electrolytes

A

Molecules that form ions when dissolved in water

Eg. Na+ (sodium)

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78
Q

Molarity

A

1 mole per litre

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79
Q

A mole

A

Atomic weight in grams

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80
Q

An acid

A

Breaks apart into one or more hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water

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81
Q

A base

A

Breaks apart into one or more hydroxide ions (OH-) ions when dissolved in water

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82
Q

Buffers

A

Resist changes in pH

  • Responsible for keeping body pH stable
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83
Q

Excess acids and excess bases are excreted by the body by two organs

A
  • Lungs

- Kidneys

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84
Q

Carbohydrates

A

Sugar & Starches

Element Ratio :

1 Carbon : 2 Hydrogen : 1 Oxygen

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85
Q

Functions of carbohydrates

A
  • Common readily available energy source
  • Energy storage; glycogen in muscles
  • Attach to external surface of cells to guide cell interaction
  • Structural element of Nucleic acids RNA, DNA
  • Make up some cell receptors
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86
Q

Groups of carbohydrates

A
  • Monosaccharides
  • Disaccharides
  • Polysaccharides
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87
Q

Monosaccharides

A

Basic building blocks of carbohydrates

Eg. Glucose

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88
Q

Disaccharides

A

Two monosaccharides joined together

Eg. Sucrose

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89
Q

Polysaccharides

A

These are long chains of thousands of monosaccharides joined together m

Eg. Glycogen (storage form of glucose)

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90
Q

Glucose

A

Key fuel in the body and is main carbohydrate used by all cells

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91
Q

Hyperglycaemia

A

Blood sugars are too high

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92
Q

Hypoglycaemia

A

Blood sugars are too low

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93
Q

Lipids

A

Not soluble in water

Contain mainly carbon, hydrogen, with some phosphorus & nitrogen

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94
Q

Functions of lipids

A
  • Insulation
  • Protection of body organs
  • Energy storage when glucose is in short supply
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95
Q

Lipid groups

A
  • Fats (triglycerides)
  • Fatty acids
  • Phospholipids
  • Steroids including cholesterol
  • Fat-soluble vitamins - A, D, E, K
  • Prostaglandins
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96
Q

Fats (triglycerides) structure

A

Single glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acids attached

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97
Q

Fats (triglycerides) Function

A
  • Storage of chemical energy
  • Excess carbohydrates, fat, protein stored as triglyceride
  • Protects / insulates body organs
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98
Q

Fatty acids structure

A

Long chain of carbon atoms with hydrogen attached

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99
Q

Types of fatty acids

A
  • Saturated fatty acids
  • Monounsaturated fatty acids
  • Polyunsaturated fatty acids
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100
Q

Saturated fatty acids

A

Single bonds between carbon atoms

Eg. Stearic acid, Animal fats

Usually solid at room temperature

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101
Q

Monounsaturated fatty acids

A

One double bond between carbon atoms

Eg. Olive oil

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102
Q

Polyunsaturated fatty acids

A

More than one double bond between carbon atoms

Eg. Omega 3 / 6/ 9 fatty acids

Sunflower oil

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103
Q

Phospholipids structure

A

Phosphate & glycerol attached to 2 fatty acids

Arranged in bilayers & forms cell membrane

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104
Q

Cholesterol structure

A
  • Basic steroid molecule
  • Found in cell membrane
  • Can be converted into other steroids
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105
Q

HSE recommended total cholesterol level for healthy adults

A

Level below 5 mmol/L

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106
Q

Proteins structure

A

Contain carbon hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (some also contain sulphur, phosphorus)

Amino acids are building blocks of protein

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107
Q

How amino acids form protein

A

Joined together by dehydration synthesis and linked by peptide bonds to from proteins

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108
Q

Dipeptide

A

2 amino acids joined together

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109
Q

Tripeptide

A

3 amino acids joined together

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110
Q

Polypeptide

A

Many amino acids joined then folded & processed, producing the final protein

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111
Q

How many different amino acids

A

20 used in different combinations & quantities to produce many different proteins

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112
Q

Essential amino acids

A

9 that can’t be produced by the human body & need to be taken in as food.

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113
Q

Functions of protein

A
  • Structural support : tendons, ligaments
  • Speed up chemical reactions in body (enzymes)
  • Muscle
  • Antibodies (part of immune system)
  • Hormones
  • Haemoglobin
  • Nitrogen balance
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114
Q

Enzymes

A

Proteins which speed up chemical reactions in the body without being changed themselves

Only involves in one type of reaction each

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115
Q

Nucleotides types

A
  • Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

- Nucleic Acids

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116
Q

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

A
  • Made from ribose (sugar), adenine (base) & 3 phosphates
  • Energy currency of the body, and is made in the mitochondria
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117
Q

Nucleic Acid

A
  • Made from ribose or deoxyribose (sugar) & 1 phosphate
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118
Q

Nucleic acid bases

A
  • Cytosine
  • Guanine
  • Adenine
  • Thymine
  • Uracil
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119
Q

How much water in adult human body

A

60% water ; approx 40 litres

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120
Q

Intracellular fluid

A

Fluid inside cells / cytosol

  • 28 Litres
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121
Q

Extracellular fluid

A

All other fluid outside cells

  • 12 Litres
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122
Q

Intercellular / interstitial fluid

A

Fluid in between cells

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123
Q

Plasma

A

Watery component of blood

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124
Q

Lymph

A

Watery fluid within lymphatic vessels

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125
Q

Types of movement of substances within body fluids

A

Passive Movement :

  • Diffusion
  • Osmosis
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126
Q

Homeostasis

A

Maintaining a constant internal environment

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127
Q

Negative feedback

A

Any movement away from the normal level is reversed (negated)

  • Eg. Control of body temp
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128
Q

Positive feedback

A

Increasing response as long as the stimulus is present

  • Eg. Labour during childbirth
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129
Q

What is a Cell

A
  • Structural & Functional unit of all living organisms

- Often called the “building block of life”

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130
Q

Unicellular organism

A

Bacteria

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131
Q

Multicellular organisms

A

Plants, animals & humans

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132
Q

Prokaryotic properties

A
  • Genes not enclosed in nuclear membrane
  • Cytoplasm have no other membrane bound organelles
  • Really small cells
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133
Q

Prokaryotic Example

A

Bacteria

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134
Q

Eukaryotic properties

A
  • Genes enclosed in a nuclear membrane

- Cytoplasm contains other bound organelles

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135
Q

Interstitial space

A

Space between cells

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136
Q

Interstitial fluid Function

A
  • Provides cells with nutrients

- Provides a means of waste removal

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137
Q

Cell (plasma) membrane

A
  • Surrounds the cytoplasm
  • Separates & protects cell
  • Membrane made up of phospholipids
  • Hydrophilic = “water loving” head group
  • Hydrophobic tail
  • phospholipids naturally form a bilayer when added to water
  • Dynamic (not rigid structures)
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138
Q

Embedded in the cell membrane

A
  • Cholesterol : adds stability

- Protein

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139
Q

Role of protein in cell membrane

A
  • Can act as specific receptors
  • Can regulate what is transported across the membrane. in & out of the cell
  • Carbohydrates can attach to the proteins and “flag” the cell, identifying it as “self” and not a foreign invading cell
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140
Q

Passive transport

A

Substances move down concentration gradient, from high concentration to low concentration

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141
Q

Active transport

A

Energy is required to move substances against their concentration gradient; from low to high concentration

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142
Q

Osmosis

A

Movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane

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143
Q

Facilitated / carrier-mediated diffusion

A

Bonds to a specific carrier site; the carrier changes shape & deposits molecule on the other side

Eg. Glucose

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144
Q

Bulk transport across the cell membrane

A

Taken into the cell by ;

  • Pinocytosis (small particle)
  • Phagocytosis (large particle)

Eliminated from the cell by ;

  • Exocytosis (rid cell of waste)
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145
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Strands of protein involved in maintaining the structure of the cell

146
Q

Microfilaments

A
  • Structural support, maintaining the shape of the cell
147
Q

Microtubules

A

These protein are like train tracks on which various molecules are transported, within the cell

148
Q

Nucleus

A
  • Contain chromosomes (genes)

- Cell replication & protein synthesis begin here

149
Q

Mitochondrion

A
  • Power-plant of the cell because energy is generated here
  • Aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondrion which generates energy in the form of ATP
  • Can self-replicate as they contain their own DNA
150
Q

Lysosomes

A
  • Contain digestive enzymes which breakdown / digests substances which are then either recycled or released from the cell
151
Q

Digestive enzymes

A
  • Lipases which digests lipids
  • Carbohydrases which digest carbohydrates
  • Proteases which digest proteins
  • Nucleases which digest Nucleic acids
152
Q

Ribosomes function

A
  • Synthesise proteins within our cells (nucleus dictates what type of protein)
153
Q

Ribosomes locations

A
  • Floating freely in cytoplasm
  • Binding to the nuclear envelope
  • Binding to the endoplasmic reticulum
154
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum types

A

Smooth & Rough

155
Q

Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum functions

A
  • Synthesis of lipids & steroid hormones
  • Metabolism of carbohydrates
  • Detoxification of some drugs
156
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum functions

A
  • Processes / modifies proteins & transports proteins to the cell membrane, some of which may be secreted from the cell

Eg. Enzymes & hormones

157
Q

Golgi apparatus

A
  • Further processes / refines & sorts proteins
  • Vesicles from rough endoplasmic reticulum are transported to the Golgi apparatus where they are modified, sorted & shipped toward cell membrane
158
Q

Infection

A

The growth of an organism within a host

159
Q

Pathogen

A

Disease-causing organism

160
Q

Virulence

A

The relative ability of an organism to cause disease : degree of pathogenicity

161
Q

Commensal or human normal flora functions

A
  • Prevent other bacteria from multiplying
  • In the gut they aid digestion and produce essential vitamins
  • Play a role in immunity against disease
162
Q

Bacterial infection example

A
  • Streptococcus (throat infection)
163
Q

Fungal infection example

A
  • Candida (yeast infection)
164
Q

Viral infection example

A
  • Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
165
Q

Protozoa infection example

A
  • Plasmodium Malaria (Malaria)
166
Q

Parasitic infection example

A
  • Worms (tapeworm)
167
Q

Prions infection example

A
  • Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease
168
Q

How bacteria divide

A
  • Binary Fission : divide in 2 equal parts

- Fast multipliers (every 20 mins under favourable conditions)

169
Q

Identifying bacteria

A

1) Specimens collected (blood, urine…)
2) Grow bacteria on special medium (agar)
3) Identify

170
Q

Bacteria Shapes

A

1) Cocci : Round / Berry shape
2) Bacilli : Rod Shaped
3) Spirochete : Corkscrew / Twisted

171
Q

Staining

A
  • Gram stain most important staining reaction
    1) A thin film of specimen is smeared on to a glass microscope slide and stained with mixture of violet & red dyes
    2) Depending upon which dye is taken up, the bacterium will appear purple (Gram Positive) or pink (Gram- Negative)
172
Q

Obligate aerobes

A
  • Require oxygen to survive

Eg. Mycobacterium tuberculosis

173
Q

Obligate Anaerobes

A
  • Do not tolerate oxygen

Eg. Clostridium tetani = tetanus

174
Q

Facultative anaerobes

A
  • Can survive in the presence or absence of oxygen

Eg. Escherichia coli (enteric gut bacteria)

175
Q

Fungi

A
  • Study is called mycology
  • Are composed of slender filaments called hyphae
  • Eukaryotic cells
  • Can be unicelular or multicellular
176
Q

A mass of hyphae

A
  • Mycelium
177
Q

Fungal infections reproductions

A
  • Reproduce sexually or asexually : produce spores
  • Fungal infection can be chronic (grow slowly within or on host)
  • Opportunistic (take over when host is immunosuppressed)
178
Q

Systemic fungal infections

A
  • Deep within the body, can affect many tissues & organs

Eg. Inhalation of a fungal spore may cause respiratory infection

179
Q

Subcutaneous fungal infection

A
  • Occur beneath the skin, usually acquired from puncture wounds
180
Q

Viruses is made of

A
  • Consists of Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) wrapped in a protein coat (capsid)
181
Q

Obligate intracellular parasites definition

A
  • They can exist only at the expense of another organism
182
Q

Viral infection process

A

1) Virus attached & enters cell
2) Virus Releases genetic material into host cell
3) Hijacks the host cells replication machinery to make more vital Nucleic acid & more protein coats
4) Assembled into new viruses which leave the cell & move on to infect other neighbouring cells

183
Q

Bacterial infection - preventative methods

A

1) Sterilisation of utensils
2) Basic hygiene & cleanliness-hand washing
3) Wiping surfaces
4) Use of disposable gloves
5) Personal protective equipment

184
Q

Antibiotics are :

A
  • Bactericidal (kills bacteria)

- Bacteristatic (inhibit growth of bacteria)

185
Q

Action of antibiotics

A
  • Prevent bacterial cell wall formation
    Eg. penicillins
  • Inhibit protein synthesis
    Eg. Tetracyclines
  • Enzyme inhibition
    Eg. Sulphonamides
  • Blocking DNA replication
    Eg. Quinolones
186
Q

Combating viral infections

A
  • Difficult to treat viral infections as you may also affect host cells
  • Antibiotics are no use
  • Vaccines (attenuated or dead version of the virus used to prime the host immune system)
187
Q

Prevent fusion of virus membrane with host thereby preventing entry

A
  • Amantadine
188
Q

Prevent Viral Replication

A
  • Aciclovir : used against herpes & cold sores

- Zidovudine (AZT) : used to protect child in utero from HIV from mother

189
Q

Prevent viral proteins being made

A
  • Proteases (break down proteins)

Eg. Saquinavir

190
Q

Prevent viral release from cell

A
  • Oseltamivir for influenza
191
Q

Skin Host Defence

A
  • The skin is an inhospitable environment for many microbes :
    1) Dry & Acidic
    2) Sweat & sebum posses antimicrobial properties
    3) Skin sheds regularly & keratin is a strong physical barrier
192
Q

Oral cavity host defense

A

Normal flora : Ideal home for microbes : warm, moist & lots of nutrients

1) Saliva is antimicrobial
2) Ingestion and dislodgement of microbes by chewing and swallowing

193
Q

Digestive tract normal flora

A
  • Not many microorganisms found in stomach & duodenum due to low ph (acidic)
  • Many commensal and mutualistic microbes in large intestine
  • Vitamin K & some B vitamins are produced by bacteria in large intestine
194
Q

Digestive tract host defense

A
  • Shedding of intestinal membrane occurs periodically

- Mucus prevents unwanted bacterial from attaching

195
Q

Respiratory tract normal flora

A
  • Nose & throat contain many microbes while lower respiratory tract is usually sterile (cilia & mucus)
  • Mostly bacterial
196
Q

Respiratory tract host defense

A
  • Nasal secretions kill many microbes, movement of cilia removes many microorganisms, also sneezing & coughing
197
Q

Urinary tract normal flora

A
  • Lower urethra contains many microbes
198
Q

Urinary tract host defense

A
  • Mechanical flow of urine removed many microbes

- Acidic pH and urea antimicrobial

199
Q

Routes of entry

A

1) Inhalation : Inhaling organisms
2) Ingestion : Contaminated food / water
3) Inoculation : Damage to skin or mucus membrane

4) Congenital Transmission : Maternal or foetal transfer of pathogen
Eg. Rubella

200
Q

Modes of spread

A
  • Contact : Direct (via hands or sex) / Indirect (contaminated equipment or surface)
  • Vectors eg. mosquitos
  • Airborne eg sneezing
  • Endogenous eg one body to another
  • Contaminated food / water eg faecal-oral transmission
201
Q

Disinfection :

A
  • Making the object non-infective
  • May still be microorganisms but much less
  • Spores remain following disinfection
202
Q

Sterilisation:

A
  • Destruction of all living organisms
  • A number of methods exist
    1) Heat (dry & moist)
    2) Radiation
    3) Chemicals
203
Q

Role of Nurse with infection

A

Aim: Prevent cross-infection rather than relying upon the ability to treat infection once it has occurred

1) Protect ourselves
2) Protect our colleagues
3) Protect patients/clients

204
Q

Glycaemic index

A
  • A scale that describes how fast a food is converted to glucose in the blood
205
Q

Low GI foods

A
  • “Drip feed” the body with energy over a longer period of time

Eg. Starches / Fibers

206
Q

High GI foods

A
  • Converted to an absorbable sugar quickly & provide rapid energy to the bloodstream & muscles
  • Generates an insulin spike and may give rise to energy swing
  • Good before sports
207
Q

Starch

A
  • Major plant storage form of glucose
208
Q

Dietary fibre non starch polysaccharide properties

A
  • Resistant to digestion by amylase
  • Recommend intake of fibre a day is 20-30kg (currently average only 50%)
  • Passes through bowel undigested, some fermented in bowel to short fatty acids
209
Q

Dietary fibre non starch polysaccharide functions

A

Adds bulk of faeces decreases faeces transit time :

  • Decreases risk of bowel problems like constipation or cancer

Helps control energy intake :

  • Reduces eating speed
  • Slows gastric emptying - feel full longer
  • Low GI prevents peak of glucose and insulin
  • Soluble types lower cholesterol levels
210
Q

Anabolism

A
  • Smaller substances give rise to bigger molecules-synthesis
211
Q

Catabolism

A
  • Substances are broken down into simpler ones; energy is released & used to make ATP
212
Q

Order of preference for making ATP

A

1) Carbohydrates (especially glucose)
2) Fats (when inadequate carbs)
3) Proteins (conserved but broken down in starvation)

213
Q

Metabolism of carbohydrates

A

1) Digestion : taken in by diet & catabolised into simple sugars in the gastrointestinal tract
2) Absorption: simple sugars are transported into bloodstream and transported around the body
3) Cells take glucose & catabolise further into ATP
4) Glucose + Oxygen 🔜 + ATP

214
Q

Gluconeogenesis

A
  • Making glucose from non carbohydrates
215
Q

Intake of carbohydrates per day

A
  • Should make up approx 55% of total caloric intake per day (only 10% sugars)
216
Q

First class proteins

A
  • A protein that contains essential amino acids in good quantities
    1) Meat / Fish / Milk products
    2) Peas / Beans
217
Q

Second class proteins

A
  • Are low in one or more essential amino acids
  • If vegan / vegetarian need mutual supplementation
    i. e Rice + Peas
218
Q

Daily intake of protein

A
  • 0.8 grams per kg of body weight

- Average western diet 15% more protein than adequate needs

219
Q

Protein Metabolism (Eating)

A

1) Digestion : taken in by diet & digested in gastrointestinal tract to amino acids
2) Absorption & Transport to cell as amino acids
3) Amino acids used to build other proteins needed
4) Cells can’t build their own proteins unless all need amino acids are present
5) When carbs & fats aren’t available amino acids used to make ATP
6) When amino acids metabolised amine part is removed and forms ammonia
7) Rest of amino acid is catabolised further in the mitochondrion to generate ATP

220
Q

Protein Metabolism (Making Proteins)

A

1) Mainly occurs in liver
2) Synthesis of proteins from amino acids
3) Conversion/making of non essential amino acids
4) Breakdown of proteins

221
Q

Protein Metabolism (Nitrogen)

A

1) Proteins are main source of nitrogen, deficiency leads to negative nitrogen balance
2) If protein are eaten in excess, nitrogen removed & nitrogenous wastes are excreted by the kidneys
3) Remainder is converted to fat for storage

222
Q

Lipids definition

A
  • Lipids are broadly defined as any fat-soluble (lipophilic), naturally- occurring molecules
223
Q

Types of Lipids

A

1) Fats
2) Fatty Acids
3) Steroids
4) Phospholipids

224
Q

Example of fats

A
  • Monoglycerides, diglycerides & triglycerides

Function : Energy

225
Q

Example of fatty acids

A
  • Arachidonic acid

Function : Cell membrane structure & signalling

226
Q

Example of steroids

A
  • Cholesterol

Function : Cell membranes, give rise to some hormones

227
Q

Example of phospholipids

A
  • Leicitin

Function : Cell membranes

228
Q

Main source of fats

A

1) Milk fats
2) Meat fats
3) Seeds(oils) & Nuts
4) Fish oils
5) Hidden fats

229
Q

Functions of fats

A

1) 20-35% of our energy
2) Palatability
3) Satiation : delays emptying time of stomach
4) Transport & store fat soluble vitamins
5) Structural support of many organs Eg. eyes
6) Forms cholesterol & steroid hormones
7) Forms myelin sheath that insulates nerves
8) Insulates heat in the body

230
Q

Lipid Metabolism

A

1) Lipids taken in by diet & digested in the gastrointestinal tract to fatty acids + glycerol
2) Absorbed from digestive tract to the blood and the lymph
3) Fatty Acids are broken down in the liver

4) Liver cells use fatty acids to make cholesterol,
Lipoproteins & release the remaining smaller fat molecules into the blood

5) Fat molecules & cholesterol are taken up & used by the cells of the body for membrane structure or for making steroid hormones
6) Fats molecules are used to make myelin sheaths in the nervous system

231
Q

Fat Breakdown

A

For fats to be used for ATP

1) Broken down by the liver to acetic acid

2) Within mitochondria of liver cells:
Acetic acid 🔜 Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP

3) When carbohydrates are low large amounts of fat are used to make ATP
(Ketosis happens in uncontrolled diabetes)

232
Q

Cholesterol - Transportation

A
  • Lipoproteins transport fat & cholesterol in the blood as they are not water-soluble
    1) Low density lipoproteins (LDLs)
    2) High density lipoproteins (HDLs)
233
Q

Low density proteins

A
  • “Bad” lipoproteins
  • LDLs transport cholesterol & other lipids TO body cells
  • Large amounts of LDLs are circulating, there is a high chance that fatty substances will be deposited on arterial walls causing atherosclerosis
234
Q

High Density Lipoproteins

A
  • “Good” lipoproteins
  • HDLs transport cholesterol & other lipids from body cells to liver for disposal in bite salts
  • Help in eliminating circulating cholesterol
235
Q

Water soluble vitamins

A
  • Vitamins B, C, Folic Acid
236
Q

Vitamin A Source

A

1) Animal Sources Eg. Meat/Eggs/Dairy
2) Green leafy and intensely coloured fruits and vegetables Eg. Carrots

Belongs to the family of chemical compound known as retinoids

237
Q

Vitamin A Functions

A

1) Eye Health
2) Skin Health
3) Bone Health
4) Hormone Synthesis

238
Q

Vitamin A Deficiency

A

1) Night Blindness
2) Dry Scaly Skin
3) Inefficient functioning of immune system so prone to infection

239
Q

Vitamin D Source

A

1) Cheese, eggs, butter, cereals & fish

2) Skin synthesises vitamin D when exposed to sunlight

240
Q

Vitamin D Functions

A
  • Promotes absorption & use of calcium & phosphorus for strong bones & teeth
241
Q

Vitamin D Deficiency

A

1) Rickets : failure of growth & deformity of long bones (childhood disease)
2) Osteomalacia : a bone softening disorder in adults where there is muscle weakness & bone fragility
3) Osteoporosis: Fragile bones

242
Q

Vitamin E Source

A

1) Vegetable oils
2) Egg yolk
3) Nuts
4) Sunflower seeds
5) Wheat germ

243
Q

Vitamin E Functions

A

1) Antioxidant to prevent cell membrane damage

2) May reduce risk of heart disease, cancer, cataracts, age related macular degeneration

244
Q

Vitamin E Deficiency

A

1) Premature or very low birth weight infants

2) Neurological problems due to poor nerve conduction

245
Q

Vitamin K Source

A

1) Green leafy vegetables

2) Vegetable oils

246
Q

Vitamin K Functions

A

1) Needed by liver to make clotting factors (prothrombin, factors VII, IX & X)

247
Q

Vitamin K Deficiency

A

1) Defective blood clotting causing severe bleeding on injury

248
Q

Vitamin B1 (thiamine) Source

A

1) Lean Meats & fish
2) Egg yolk
3) Yeast
4) Nuts

249
Q

Vitamin B1 (thiamine) Functions

A

1) Helps the body convert carbs & fat into energy

2) Essential for normal growth, development & proper functioning of the heart, nervous system & digestive system

250
Q

Vitamin B1 (thiamine) Deficiency

A

1) Leads to Beriberi :
- Altered nerve activity
- Symptoms may include weight loss, emotional disturbances, impaired sensory perception, weakness and pain in the limbs, and periods of irregular heartbeat
- Oedema of bodily tissues common
- May cause heart failure and death

251
Q

Vitamin B2 Source

A

1) Lean Meat, Eggs
2) Green Vegetables
3) Milk, Cheese

252
Q

Vitamin B2 Functions

A

1) Metabolising carbs, fats & proteins
2) Needed for enzymes in :
- Red blood formation
- Respiration
- Reproduction

253
Q

Vitamin B2 Deficiency

A

1) Skin Rash

2) Eye Sensitivity to the sun

254
Q

Vitamin Folic Acid (B9) Source

A

1) Dark green leafy vegetables

2) Citrus Fruits

255
Q

Vitamin Folic Acid (B9) Functions

A

1) Production & maintenance of new cells
2) Key for periods of rapid cell divinos & growth such as infancy & pregnancy
3) DNA & RNA replication & red blood cell formation

256
Q

Vitamin Folic Acid (B9) Deficiency

A

1) Leads to neural tube defects & malformations of the brain
2) Anaemia

257
Q

Vitamin C Source

A

1) Fresh fruits & vegetables

258
Q

Vitamin C Functions

A

1) Important antioxidant
2) Collagen synthesis
3) Enhances immune system
4) High doses may be carcinogenic

259
Q

Vitamin C Deficiency

A
  • Scurvy :
    1) Easy bruising
    2) Loose teeth
    3) Superficial bleeding
    4) Compromised immunity
260
Q

Calcium Source

A

1) Milk, Cheese
2) Eggs
3) Green Vegetables

261
Q

Calcium Functions

A

1) Bone & tooth formation
2) Blood coagulation
3) Nerve & Muscle activity

262
Q

Calcium Deficiency

A

1) Stunted growth in children

2) Bone loss (osteoporosis) in adults

263
Q

Potassium Source

A

1) Meat
2) Milk
3) Fruit & Vegetables

264
Q

Potassium Functions

A

1) Fluid balance: electrolyte balance

2) Nerve & Muscle activity

265
Q

Potassium Deficiency

A

1) Muscular Weakness

2) Cardiac arrest

266
Q

Phosphorus Source

A

1) Cheese

2) Liver & kidney

267
Q

Phosphorus Functions

A

1) Bones & tooth
2) Enzymes
3) DNA & RNA

268
Q

Phosphorus Deficiency

A

1) Weakness

2) Demineralisation of bone

269
Q

Sodium Source

A

1) Salt

2) Cured meats

270
Q

Sodium Functions

A

1) Fluid balance
2) Muscle & nerve activity
3) Blood pressure

271
Q

Sodium Deficiency

A

1) Muscle cramps
2) Reduced appetite
3) Weakness

272
Q

Iron Source

A

1) Red meat
2) Egg yolk
3) Green Vegetables

273
Q

Iron Functions

A

1) Haemoglobin in red blood cells

2) Enzymes

274
Q

Iron Deficiency

A

1) Anaemia
2) Weakness
3) Infections
4) Fatigue

275
Q

Gene Definition

A

Encodes a single protein & is the unit of inheritance

276
Q

Describe Nucleic acid

A
  • The genetic materials

- 2 forms : DNA & RNA

277
Q

DNA is made up of:

A

1) Sugar (deoxyribose)
2) Phosphate
3) 1 of 4 nucleotide bases

278
Q

DNA Replication Steps

A

Before to cell division

1) DNA helix starts to unfold & unwind
2) Each strand acts as a template to produce new molecule
3) Continue until 2 new DNA strands form
4) Each new molecule has one “old” and one “new” DNA strand

279
Q

RNA Function

A

Build complex proteins through transcription & translation

280
Q

DNA & RNA differences

A

DNA :

1) Deoxyribose
2) Very Large
3) Double Helix
4) In nucleus
5) Double stranded

RNA:

1) Ribose
2) Small
3) Single strand
4) In nucleus & cytoplasm
5) hnRNA, mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

281
Q

mRNA Function

A

Carry genetic instructions from the gene to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm

282
Q

Transcription

A

Using DNA as a template, a piece of mRNA is made from the gene which will make a new protein

283
Q

Translation

A

mRNA leaves the nucleus & travels to the ribosomes where the new protein is made.

Amino acids are added one by one to form a polypeptide

284
Q

Mitosis Steps

A

1) Prophase : chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nuclear envelope disappears
2) Metaphase : Chromosomes align at equatorial plate
3) Anaphase : sister chromatids separate, centromeres divide
4) Telophase : Chromatin expands, cytoplasm divides

285
Q

Locus Definition

A

Specific location of a gene on chromosome

286
Q

Trait/Phenotype

A

Observable expression of a gene or collection of genes- the trait observed because of the genotype

287
Q

Allele Definition

A

Alternative forms of a gene at a given locus m

288
Q

Homozygous Definition

A

Both genes on both chromosomes are identical i.e. both alleles identical at a given locus

289
Q

Heterozygous Definition

A

Both genes on both chromosomes are different I.e. alleles differ at a given locus

290
Q

Genotype Definition

A

Genetic composition of individual- pair of alleles present in an individual

291
Q

Autosomes Definition

A

The first 22 pairs of chromosomes

292
Q

Structural Mutations

A

1) Inversion
2) Translocation
3) Duplication
4) Deletion
5) Insertion

293
Q

Monosomy

A

One copy of a given chromosome

Eg. Turner’s syndrome

294
Q

Trisomy

A

3 copies of a given chromosome

Eg, Down syndrome

295
Q

Epigenetic Mechanisms

A

1) Development
2) Environmental chemicals
3) Drugs/Pharmaceuticals
4) Aging
5) Diet

296
Q

DNA Methylation

A

Methyl group can tag DNA and activate or repress genes

297
Q

Histones Definition

A

Histones are proteins around which DNA can wind for compaction and gene regulation

298
Q

Male Reproductive System Function

A

Produces, stores & transports sperm outside the body

299
Q

Male External Gentilalia

A

1) Penis

2) Scrotum

300
Q

Male Essential Sex Organs

A

Gonads = Testes

301
Q

Male Accessory Structures

A

1) Ducts

2) Glands

302
Q

Penis Functions

A

1) Delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract & urine to the exterior
2) Expansion of blood sinuses under the influence of sexual excitation cause erection

303
Q

Scrotum Functions

A

1) Out pouching of the abdomen that supports the testes via the spermatic cords
2) The production & survival of sperm required -3 degrees lower than body temperature

304
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

In seminiferous tubules - sperm is made under the influence of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

305
Q

Testes Connective Tissue Functions

A

Supports seminiferous tubules

1) Sertoli Cells : Sperm cells mature here
2) Leydig Cells : Under the influence of Luteinizing Hormone (LH) these cells make testosterone

306
Q

Duct System includes :

A

1) Epididymis
2) Vas deferens
3) Ejaculatory Duct
4) Urethra

307
Q

Epididymis Function

A

Site for sperm maturation & storage

308
Q

Vas Deferens Function

A

Stores sperm & propels them towards the urethra during ejaculation

309
Q

Male Urethra Function

A

Carries urine & sperm but not at the same time

During ejaculation sphincter at the base of bladder constricts to prevent urine passing and sperm entering bladder

310
Q

Seminal Vesicle Function

A

1) Secrete an alkaline, viscous fluid
2) 60% of the volume of semen
3) Fructose & nutrients give sperm with energy & viability

311
Q

Prostate Gland Function

A

Secretes slightly acidic fluid that constitutes 15% of the semen volume & contributes to sperm mobility

312
Q

Bulbourethral (Crowper’s) Glands Function

A

Secrete mucous (10%) for lubrication & neutralises acid

313
Q

Semen (Seminal Fluid) Defintion

A

Mixture of sperm + secretions from glands that provide nutrients and fluid that sperm are transported

Neutralises acidity of male urethra & female vagina

314
Q

Sperm Head

A

1) Contains DNA in the nucleus

2) Helmet-like structure called Acrosome releases enzymes to penetrate the layers around egg

315
Q

Sperm Midpiece

A

Contains mitochondria which provide energy (ATP) and aid mobility

316
Q

Sperm Tail

A

Contains filaments which propel the sperm

317
Q

Female External Genitalia

A

1) Vulva

2) Mammary Glands

318
Q

Female essential sex organs

A

Ovaries (gonads)

319
Q

Female accessory structures

A

1) Fallopian tubes
2) Uterus
3) Vagina

320
Q

Vulva Includes :

A

1) Mons pubis
2) Labia majora & minora
3) Clitoris
4) Vestibule
5) Vaginal & urethral orifices
6) Vestibule & Bartholin’s glands

321
Q

Perineum Definition

A

Area between vaginal opening & anus, sometimes cut to assist childbirth (episiotomy)

322
Q

Ovaries location

A

Upper pelvic cavity on sides of the uterus

323
Q

Ovaries Function

A

1) Oogenesis : Produce eggs

2) Produce hormones oestrogen & progesterone

324
Q

Uterine (fallopian) tubes

A

1) Transport the ova from the ovaries to the uterus

2) Where fertilisation occurs

325
Q

Uterus (womb) functions

A

1) Transporting sperm
2) Menstruation
3) Implantation of fertilised ovum
4) Development of the foetus during pregnancy
5) Labour

326
Q

Uterus consists of :

A

1) Outer perimetrium
2) Middle myometrium
3) Inner endometrium

327
Q

Vagina Functions

A

1) Passageway for sperm & the menstrual flow

2) Receptacle for the penis during sexual intercourse & is the lower portion of the birth canal

328
Q

Mammary glands Function

A

1) Lactation : secretion & ejection of milk

Secretion = Hormone Prolactin

Ejection = Hormone Oxytocin

329
Q

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) Functions

A

1) Regulates Hormones
2) Released from Hypothalamus
3) Stimulates (FSH) & (LH) from anterior pituitary

330
Q

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Functions in Male & Female

A

Male- Drives spermatogenesis

Female- Development of ovum

331
Q

Luteinising Hormone Function in Male & Female

A

Male- Hormone production (testosterone

Female- Hormone production (Oestrogen & Progesterone)

332
Q

Follicular Phase Steps

A

1) FSH stimulates 20 follicles to grow & secrete oestrogen
2) One follicle outgrows others, secretion of FSH is decreased
3) Dominant follicle becomes Graafian (mature) follicle
4) Blister-like bulge develops in surface of ovary
5) Just before ovulation, small quantities of progesterone are produced
6) Oestrogen causes division of new cells to replace the shed endometrium and begins repair and thickens

333
Q

Ovulation Steps

A

Day 14

1) Surge of LH causes rupture of mature Graafian Follicle and the release of the ovum

334
Q

Luteal Phase Steps

A

14 days

1) Stimulated by LH, remnants from Graafian Follicle become the corpus luteum

2) Corpus Luteum secretes :
- Oestrogen
- Progesterone
- Relaxin
- Inhibin

3) If not fertilised corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans and hormones oestrogen & progesterone drop and cycle begins again
4) If fertilised egg begins to divide & produces human chorionic gonadotropin

335
Q

Pregnancy Steps

A

Gestation Period :

1) Fertilisation
2) Implantation
3) Embryonic Development
4) Foetal Development
5) Birth after 38 weeks

336
Q

Name for 1st two months after fertilisation

A

Embryo

337
Q

Name after 2 months after fertilisation until birth

A

Foetus

338
Q

Name for first 42 days after birth

A

Neonate

339
Q

Names after joining & division of egg

A

1) Zygote
2) Morula
3) Blastocyst

340
Q

Teratogen

A

Something that causes developmental defects in the embryo

341
Q

Location of the heart

A

1) In thoracic cavity
2) Slightly more to the left
3) Diaphragm separates thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity

342
Q

Systemic Flow

A

Oxygenated flow to the organs of the body from the left size of the heart through the aorta

343
Q

Pulmonary Flow

A

1) Deoxygenated blood flow to lungs by pulmonary artery

2) Oxygenated blood to the left side of heart to body by pulmonary veins

344
Q

Hydrostatic Pressure

A

Blood pressure which tends to drive fluid out of the bloodstream at the arterial end of capillary

345
Q

Osmotic Pressure of the blood

A

Where due plasma proteins in blood, it exerts a force that pull or holds onto water in the blood vessel at the venous end of the capillary

346
Q

Lymphatic System Structure

A

1) Oneway system made up of blind ended tubes
2) Most vessels are like capillaries, thin endothelial layer only
3) Larger vessels have some muscle

347
Q

Lymphatic System Function

A

1) Collect and return surplus interstitial fluid and plasma proteins to the blood
2) Defend the body against invading organisms by means of the immune system
3) Absorb lipids from the digestive tract

348
Q

Upper Respiratory Tract Function

A

1) Air Passage
2) Cleaning of Air
3) Smell

349
Q

Pharynx Functions

A

1) Movement, warming and humidifying air
2) Movement of food
3) Protection
4) Speech

350
Q

Larynx Functions

A

1) Passage of Air
2) Sound and Speech
3) Warming and humidifying

351
Q

Trachea Functions

A

1) Air Passage
2) Support
3) Protection

352
Q

Pleura Layers

A

1) Parietal : outer layer - chest wall
2) Visceral : inner layer - lungs
3) Pleural cavity : space between two layers - small

353
Q

Lower Respiratory Tract Function

A

1) Airways - Conduction

2) Alveoli - Gas exchange

354
Q

Sympathetic Nerves

A

Stimulation causes

1) Relaxation of smooth muscle
2) Enlargement of airways

355
Q

Parasympathetic Nerves

A

Vagus nerve

Stimulation causes :

1) Construction
3) Decrease in size of the airways

356
Q

Squamous Epithelium Function

A

Facilitates easy diffusion of gases

357
Q

Secretion of Surfactant Function

A

1) Reduces surface tension

2) Prevents drying of alveoli

358
Q

Respiration Steps

A

1) Cycle of breathing : ventilation (expiration & inspiration)
2) Exchange of gases in lungs (external respiration)
3) Transport of gases in blood
4) Exchange of gases at tissues (internal respiration)

359
Q

Inspiration at rest Steps

A

Active phase

1) Muscle contraction leads to expansion of lungs
2) Decrease in pressure in the lungs compared to the surrounding air
3) Air moves from high pressure area (air) to low pressure area (lungs)

360
Q

Expiration at rest Steps

A

Passive Phase

1) Muscle relaxation leads to slight reduction in size of lungs compared to air
2) Air moves from high pressure (lungs) to low pressure (air)

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