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A2 Psychology > Biopsychology > Flashcards

Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

state the two divisions of the nervous system

A
  • central nervous system (CNS)

- peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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2
Q

state the divisions of the CNS and explain their roles

A

CNS: brain and spinal cord
brain - centre of all conscious awareness, divided into 2 hemispheres and outer layer called cerebral cortex
spinal cord - extension of brain, responsible for reflex actions

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3
Q

state the divisions of the PNS and explain their roles

A

PNS: Autonomic nervous system (ANS) and somatic nervous system (SNS)
ANS - governs vital functions e.g. breathing, heart rate, sexual arousal, digestion, stress responses (involuntary actions)
SNS - controls muscle movement and receives info from sensory receptors

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4
Q

The autonomic nervous system is further divided into what?

A

Parasympathetic NS - calms the body and helps the body to conserve energy
Sympathetic NS - prepares the body for action and stress. ‘fight or flight’ response.

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5
Q

role of sensory neurons

A
  • convey information about sensory stimuli: vision, touch, taste, etc. towards the brain
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6
Q

role of relay neurons

A
  • connects different parts of the central nervous system (CNS)
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7
Q

role of motor neurons

A
  • conveys instructions for physical operations: e.g. release of hormones from glands, muscle movement, digestion, etc.
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8
Q

describe the structure of the neurons

A
  • dendrites receive signals from other neurons or from sensory receptor cells, dendrites typically connected to the cell body (often referred to as the ‘control centre’ of the neuron, as it’s contains the nucleus)
  • axon is a long slender fibre that carries action potential away from cell body towards axon terminals
  • most axons surrounded by myelin sheath (except for relay neurons)
  • axon terminal connects the neuron to other neurons (or directly to organs), by synaptic transmission.
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9
Q

examples of sympathetic states

A
  • increased heart rate, increased breathing rate
  • dilates pupils, inhibits digestion and saliva production
  • contracts rectum
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10
Q

examples of parasympathetic states

A
  • decreases heart rate, decreases breathing rate
  • constricts pupils, stimulates digestion and saliva production
  • relaxes rectum
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11
Q

what is action potential?

A
  • nerve impulses in the form of an electrical signal
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12
Q

role of myelin sheath?

A
  • most axons surrounded by myelin sheath (except for relay neurons)
  • insulates axon so that the electrical impulses travel faster along the axon
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13
Q

Name 5 neurotransmitters

A
  • acetylcholine
  • dopamine
  • noradrenaline
  • serotonin
  • GABA
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14
Q

role of acetylcholine

A
  • an excitatory neurotansmitter
  • involved in voluntary movement, memory, learning and sleep
  • too much is linked to depression, too little may result in dementia
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15
Q

role of dopamine

A
  • neurotransmitter that helps movement, attention, and learning
  • too much linked to sz, too little can result in depression and Parkinson’s disease
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16
Q

role of noradrenaline

A
  • closely related to adrenaline
  • often associated with ‘fight or flight’ response
  • too much linked to sz, too little can result in depression
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17
Q

role of serotonin

A
  • involved in emotion, mood, sleeping and eating

- too little linked to depression

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18
Q

role of GABA

A
  • inhibitory neurotransmitter

- too little GABA is linked to anxiety disorders

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19
Q

what are excitatory neurotransmitters?

A
  • excitatory neurotransmitters increase likelihood than electrical impulse will be triggered in postsynaptic synapse
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20
Q

what are inhibitory neurotransmitters?

A
  • inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease likelihood that an electrical impulse will be triggered in postsynaptic neuron
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21
Q

what is a synapse?

A

the junction between two neurons or neuron and effector cell (e.g. muscle cell)

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22
Q

what is the synaptic cleft?

A

the gap between cells at a synapse

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23
Q

what is the synaptic knob?

A
  • presynaptic neuron has swelling called synaptic knob

- contains synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters

24
Q

Briefly outline how excitation and inhibition are involved in synaptic transmission. [4 marks]

A

•Neurotransmitters can be excitatory or inhibitory (most
can be both but GABA is purely
inhibitory).
• If the neurotransmitter is excitatory then the post synaptic neuron is more likely to fire an impulse.
• If the neurotransmitter is inhibitory then the post synaptic neuron is less likely to fire an impulse.
• The excitatory and inhibitory influences are summed, if the net effect on the post synaptic neuron
is inhibitory, the neuron will be less likely to ‘fire’ and if the net effect is excitatory, the neuron will
be more likely to fire

25
Q

what is synaptic transmission?

A
  • the process where an action potential passes across the synaptic gap from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron.
26
Q

describe the process of synaptic transmission

A

• electrical impulses (action potentials) reach the presynaptic terminal
• electrical impulses (action potentials) trigger release of neurotransmitters (or named
example)
• neurotransmitters cross the synapse from vesicles
• neurotransmitters combine with receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
• stimulation of postsynaptic receptors by neurotransmitters result in either excitation
(depolarisation) or inhibition (hyperpolarisation) of the postsynaptic membrane.

27
Q

what ensures impulses are unidirectional?

A
  • that there are only receptors on the postsynaptic membranes
28
Q

what ensures response doesn’t keep happening (in synaptic transmission)?

A
  • neurotransmitters removed from cleft so response doesn’t keep happening
  • e.g. they’re in presynaptic neurone or they’re broken down by enzymes (and products absorbed by neuron)
29
Q

what is the endocrine system (hormonal system) ?

A
  • network of glands across the body that secretes hormones
  • system uses blood vessel
  • different hormones produce different effects (behaviours)
30
Q

what is a gland?

A
  • group of cells that are specialised to secrete hormones

e. g. pancreas secretes insulin

31
Q

what are hormones?

A

’ chemical messengers ‘

many hormones are proteins or peptides e.g. insulin. Some hormones are steroids e.g. progesterone

32
Q

When are hormones secreted?

A

When gland is stimulated

33
Q

what is the fight or flight response?

A
  • The fight or flight response is the body and brains reaction to a situation, resulting in either to withstand the situation (fight) or flee the situation (flight)
34
Q

what’s a stressor?

A
  • stimulus (or threat) that causes stress
35
Q

describe the fight or flight response

A
  • hypothalamus triggers activity in sympathetic branch of ANS
  • this stimulates adrenal medulla in adrenal glands, which releases adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream
36
Q

Evaluate the fight or flight response

A
  • when faced with a dangerous situation, reaction not limited to the fight or flight response; some psychologists suggest humans engage in an initial ‘freeze’ response
  • Gray (1988) suggests that the first response to danger is to avoid confrontation altogether, which is demonstrated by a freeze response.
  • during the freeze response animals and humans are hyper-vigilant, while they appraise the situation to decide the best course of action for that particular threat. This discredits the fight or flight response
  • Early research into the fight or flight response was typically conducted on males (androcentrism) and consequently, researchers assumed that the findings could be generalised to females
  • highlights a beta bias within this area of psychology as psychologists assumed that females responded in the same way as males, until Taylor provided evidence of a tend and befriend response. not able to generalise findings so lacks applicability
  • fight or flight response may have been a useful survival mechanism for our ancestors, who faced genuinely life-threatening situations (e.g. from predators), modern-day life rarely requires such an intense biological response
  • stressors of modern-day life can repeatedly activate the fight or flight response and so continually increase their blood pressure….suggests that the fight or flight response is a maladaptive response in modern-day life.
37
Q

how does the adrenaline/noradrenaline released in the fight or flight response affect the body?

A
  • blood pressure and heart rate increase to get blood quickly to places that need it for activity
  • breathing rate increases so more oxygen can be sent to muscles
  • pupil size increases so more light can enter eye for clearer view
  • digestion decreases so blood can be directed to blood and muscles
  • salivation decreases as digestive system isn’t needed
38
Q

Outline function of the thyroid gland in the endocrine system

A
  • secretes thyroxine/ increases metabolic rate and affects growth
39
Q

Outline function of adrenal gland in the endocrine system

A
  • secretes adrenaline/ controls the sympathetic division in the fight or flight response
40
Q

Outline function of pituitary gland in the endocrine system

A
  • causes other glands to secrete their hormones or directly produces effects
41
Q

Outline function of the ovaries in the endocrine system

A
  • secretes oestrogen/ involved in the development of female characteristics during puberty, they regulate and control menstrual cycle
42
Q

Outline function of the testes in the endocrine system

A
  • secrete testosterone/ vital to the normal development of male physical characteristics
43
Q

Outline function of pancreas in the endocrine system

A
  • releases insulin and glucagon, which regulates blood sugar level
44
Q

Outline function of pineal gland in the endocrine system

A
  • responsible for production of melatonin, which plays a role in control of sleep patterns
45
Q

Differences in the endocrine system and Nervous system

A
  • chemical communication (by hormones) is slower than electrical communication (by nerves).
  • aren’t broken down as quickly as neurotransmitters, hormones are long-lasting
  • hormones transported all over body so response is more wide-spread
46
Q

What does localisation of function (lateralisation) mean?

A
  • the theory that certain areas of the brain are responsible for particular functions
47
Q

Briefly describe the location and function of the brain

A
  • brain is subdivided into two symmetrical hemispheres
  • cortex of both hemispheres subdivided into 4 lobes:
  • frontal lobe
  • parietal lobe
  • occipital lobe
  • temporal lobe
48
Q

Describe the location and function of the motor cortex/area

A
  • back of frontal lobe (in both hemispheres)
  • control voluntary movement in opposite side of body
  • damage to this area can cause loss of control over fine movement
49
Q

Describe the location and function of the somatosensory cortex/area

A
  • front of both parietal lobes (separated from motor area by central sulcus)
  • where sensory info from the skin (e.g. pressure, heat etc) is represented
  • amount of somatosensory area devoted to a particular body part denotes its sensitivity (the more devoted to an area, the more sensitive)
50
Q

Describe the location and function of the somatosensory visual area/cortex

A
  • part of the occipital lobe
  • receives and processes visual info
  • eye sends info from left visual field to right visual cortex vice versa therefore damage to left hemisphere can cause blindness in part of right visual field of both eyes
51
Q

Describe the location and function of the auditory area

A
  • located in temporal lobe

- analyses speech-based info , damage may produce partial hearing loss

52
Q

Describe the location and function of Broca’s area

A
  • area of frontal lobe of brain in left hemisphere (for most people) responsible for speech production
  • Surgeon Broca identified small area in left frontal lobe responsible for speech production - Broca’s area
  • damage to broca’s area causes broca’s aphasia which is characterised by slow, laborious speech lacking fluency
53
Q

Describe the location and function of Wernicke’s area

A
  • area of the temporal lobe (encircling auditory cortex) in left hemisphere (in most people) responsible for language comprehension
  • Wernicke discovered patients who could produce speech but had a difficult time understanding it, he discovered an area in left temporal lobe for being responsible for language comprehension
  • damage to this area results in Wernicke’s aphasia, where people produce nonsense words (neologisms) as part of their speech
54
Q

Localisation versus holistic theory

A
  • scientists like Paul Broca and Karl Wernicke discovered specific areas of brain are associated with particular physical and psychological functions
  • before this scientists generally supported hollistic theory - all parts of brain involved in processing thought and action
55
Q

evaluate the extent to which brain function are localised

A
  • limitation of localisation of function is that a wealth of case studies on patients with damage to Broca’s and Wernicke’s area have demonstrated their function
  • Dronkers et al. (2007) conducted an MRI scan on Tan’s brain, lesion found on Broca’s area but evidence found also suggested other areas may have contributed to failure in speech production
  • results suggested that the Broca’s area may not be the only region responsible for speech production and the deficits found in patients with Broca’s aphasia could be the result of damage to other neighboring regions., this discredits the idea that functions of the brain are localised.
  • a limitation: some psychologists argue that the idea of localisation fails to take into account individual differences
  • Herasty (1997) found that women have proportionally larger Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas than men, which can maybe explain the greater ease of language use amongst women.
  • however, suggests a level of beta bias in the theory: the differences between men and woman are ignored, and variations in the pattern of activation and the size of areas observed during various language activities are not considered, discredits research that brain functions are localized
  • a strength is that there’s brain scan evidence of localisation
  • Petersen et al (1988) used brain scans to demonstrate how Wernicke’s area was active during a listening task and Broca’s area was active during a reading task, suggesting
  • this provides support for idea neurological functions are localisation in relation to language and memory
  • an argument against localisation of function is plasticity
  • when brain becomes damaged e.g. through accident, and a particular function has been lost or compromised the rest of the brain reorganizes itself to recover lost function
  • Lashley called this the ‘law of equipotentiality’ where surviving brain circuits ‘chip in’ so same neurological action can be achieved
  • this is a weakness against localization of function theory because it proves the brain can adapt and functions aren’t restricted to a particular area, discrediting it.

A2 Psychology (5 decks)

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