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Psychology - Paper 2 > Biopsychology > Flashcards

Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Summarise how the nervous system is divided

A

The nervous system splits into the CNS and PNS

  • CNS includes brain and spinal cord
  • PNS includes somatic and autonomic nervous system
  • Autonomic nervous system includes sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
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2
Q

What does the brain provide and consist of?

A

Conscious awareness in all psychological processes, consisting of distinct regions

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3
Q

State the four brain lobes, their location and their function

A
  • Frontal located at the front and associated with higher order functions
  • Parietal located at the top middle which integrates information from different senses hence playing a role in spatial navigation
  • Occipital at the back processing visual information
  • Temporal lobe at the bottom processing auditory information
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4
Q

What is the role of the brain stem and spinal cord?

A

Brain stem connects the brain and spinal cord and controls involuntary processes such as breathing
Spinal cord transfers messages to and from the brain and is responsible for reflex actions

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5
Q

What is the role of the PNS?

A

Relay messages from receptors to the CNS and messages from the CNS to glands and muscles

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6
Q

What is the role of the somatic nervous system?

A

Facilitates communication between the CNS and outside world. It includes sensory receptors, and sensory and motor pathways

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7
Q

What is the role of the autonomic nervous system

A

The division of the PNS that plays an important role in homeostasis and the maintenance of internal processes. It only consists of motor pathways

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8
Q

What is the role of the sympathetic nervous system?

A

A division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the fight or flight response. It transmits impulses to various organs in a dangerous situation, stimulating heart rate, blood pressure, breathing and suppressing digestion and salivation

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9
Q

What is the role of the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

A division of the autonomic nervous system which is involved in the rest and digest process. It slows heart rate, breathing, blood pressure and returns digestion and salivation to normal

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10
Q

What are the similarities between the brain and spinal cord?

A

The brain stem and spinal cord both control involuntary processes

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11
Q

What are the differences between the brain and spinal cord?

A
  • The brain provides conscious awareness and allows for higher order thinking whereas the spinal cord allows for simple reflexes
  • The brain consists of various regions for various functions whereas the spinal cord has one main function
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12
Q

What are the similarities between the somatic/autonomic and sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system?

A

Both respond to external stimuli e.g preparation for fight or flight response and external stimuli

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13
Q

What are the differences between the somatic/autonomic and sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system?

A
  • The autonomic has two divisions whereas the sympathetic has one
  • The somatic nervous system has sensory and motor pathways and the autonomic only has motor pathways
  • The autonomic controls internal organs and glands whereas somatic controls muscles
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14
Q

What are sensory neurons?

A

Neurons that carry nerve impulses from a receptor to the spinal cord and brain (CNS)

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15
Q

What are relay neurons?

A

Also known as intermediate neurons that are found between sensory input and motor output. They are found in the brain and spinal cord

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16
Q

What are motor neurons

A

Neurons found in the CNS that control muscles movement. They release neurotransmitters that bind to muscle receptors to trigger a response

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17
Q

Summarise how a neurone receives and transmits and nerve impulse

A
  • Dendrite receives signal
  • Carries to cell body and then to axon
  • Axon carries impulse away from cell body
  • Axon terminal is where neurone ends and connects to other neuron
  • Transmits impulse in a process called synaptic transmission
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18
Q

Summarise the process off synaptic transmission

A
  • Action potential reaches pre synaptic end of neuron
  • Causes vesicles to move to membrane and release neurotransmitter
  • These diffuse across synaptic cleft
  • Bind to receptors and have either inhibitory or excitatory effect on post synaptic cell
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19
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

A network of glands that secrete chemical messages called hormones using blood and blood vessels

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20
Q

Where is the hypothalamus, what does it release and what is its effect?

A
  • Brain
  • No hormone release
  • Stimulates and controls hormone release from pituitary gland
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21
Q

Where is the pituitary gland, what does it release and what is its effect?

A
  • Brain
  • Anterior releases adrenocortical trophic hormone
  • Posterior releases oxytocin
  • ACTH stimulates adrenal cortex and release of cortisol
  • Oxytocin causes uterus contractions
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22
Q

Where is the pineal gland, what does it release and what is its effect?

A
  • Brain
  • Melatonin
  • Responsible for regulation of important biological rhythms including sleep-wake cycle
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23
Q

Where is the thyroid gland, what does it release and what is its effect?

A
  • Neck
  • Thyroxine
  • Responsible for regulation of metabolism
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24
Q

Where is the adrenal gland, what does it release and what is its effect?

A
  • Kidneys
  • Adrenal medulla releases adrenaline and noradrenaline
  • Adrenal cortex releases cortisol
  • Adrenaline is a key hormone in fight or flight response
  • Cortisol releases glucose and suppresses immune system
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25
Q

Where are the ovaries, what do they release and what are its effects?

A
  • Female reproductive system
  • Oestrogen
  • Controls regulation of the female reproductive system including menstrual cycle and pregnancy
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26
Q

Where are the testes, what do they release and what are its effects?

A
  • Male reproductive system
  • Testosterone
  • Responsible for the development of male sex characteristics and promoting muscle growth
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27
Q

What is the fight or flight response?

A

The way in which an animal responds when stressed. The body becomes physiologically aroused in preparation to fight or flee

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28
Q

What happens when someone enters a stressful situation?

A
  • Amygdala is activated
  • Responds to sensory input and connects input with emotions associated with fight or flight
  • If the situation is deemed dangerous, a distress signal is sent to the hypothalamus
  • Communicates via sympathetic nervous system
  • If required, sympathomedullary pathway is activated
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29
Q

Name and explain the psychological changes that occur in the fight or flight response

A
  • Increase in heart rate to increase blood flow and adrenaline
  • Increased breathing rate to increase oxygen
  • Pupil dilation to increase light entry
  • Sweat to regulate temperature
  • Reduction of non-essential function to conserve energy for other essential functions
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30
Q

AO3: Why may the fight or flight response not be the only reaction is a stressful situation?

A
  • Some psychologists suggest a freeze response
  • Gray (1988) suggests the first response is to avoid confrontation
  • During freeze we become hyper-vigilant and appraise our next action
  • Possible overlooked component
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31
Q

AO3: Why does the fight or flight response suffer from gender bias

A
  • Typical male response as it has been suggested that females tend and befriend
  • Taylor (2000) suggested women are more likely to protect offspring and hence form alliances that fight/flee
  • Fleeing for woman may also be a weakness as offspring are put in danger
  • However, most research conducted on males (androcentrism) and thought to be generalisable to females
  • Beta bias as psychologists assumed females responded in the same way until Taylor
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32
Q

AO3: Why is the fight or flight response maladaptive in modern day life?

A
  • Useful survival mechanism for ancestors who may face genuine life threatening situations
  • Stressors of modern day life activate the fight or flight system when not needed
  • Negative consequence on health e.g increased blood pressure damaging heart
  • Maladaptive response to modern day life
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33
Q

Define localisation of function

A

The idea that certain functions have certain locations within the brain

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34
Q

Define hemispheric lateralisation

A

The fact that the two halves of the brain are functionally different and that each hemisphere has functional specialisations

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35
Q

Define split brain research

A

Research in patients who have undergone a surgical procedure to remove the corpus callosum

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36
Q

Define plasticity

A

The brains ability to change and adapt because of experience

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37
Q

Define functional recovery

A

The transfer of functions from a damaged area of the brain after trauma to other undamaged areas

38
Q

Summarise the motor area

A
  • Located in the frontal lobe
  • Responsible for voluntary motor movement
  • Hitzing + Fritsch (1870) first discovered different muscles are coordinated by different areas by stimulating the motor area of dogs with a probe
  • Motor area arranged in logical order e.g region for finger movement next to hand movement
39
Q

Summarise the somatosensory area

A
  • Located in parietal lobe
  • Receives incoming sensory information
  • Different parts receive from different locations
  • Robertson (1995) found this area of the brain is adaptable with Braille readers having a larger somatosensory area for their fingertips
40
Q

Summarise the visual area

A
  • Located in occipital lobe
  • Receives and processes visual information
  • Information from the right hand side visual field is processed in the left hemisphere and vice versa
  • Visual area contains different parts that process colour, shape and movement
41
Q

Summarise the auditory area

A
  • Located in the temporal love
  • Responsible for analysis and processing acoustic data
  • Information from left ear goes to right hemisphere and vice versa
  • Contains different parts for sound feature, volume, tempo and pitch
42
Q

Summarise Broca’s area

A
  • Located in the left frontal lobe and is thought to be involved in language production
  • Paul Broca discovered patient who could understand language but only say tan
  • Post mortem showed a lesion on left frontal lobe
  • Lead to conclusion that this area is responsible for speech production
  • Support comes from Broca’s aphasia occurring from damage to Broca’s area
43
Q

Summarise Wernicke’s area

A
  • Located in the left temporal lobe and thought to be involved in language comprehension
  • Carl Wernicke found lesions in Wernicke’s area were able to speak but could not comprehend language
  • Sentences are fluent but meaningless and produce Wernicke’s aphasia
  • Motor area for language in Broca’s area and sensory region in Wernicke’s area
44
Q

AO3: What did Lashley’s suggest and show on localisation of function?

A
  • Proposed equipotentiality, suggesting basic motor and sensory functions and localised and higher mental functions are not
  • Removed rats cortex and no area more important
  • Intact cortex areas can take over responsibility for specific cognitive functions after injury
  • Suggests functions not localised
45
Q

AO3: What are case studies showing about localisation of function?

A
  • Wealth of case studies for Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area
  • Both types of aphasia caused by damage to the area
  • Contradictory evidence such as Drinkers (2007) who conducted an MRI on Tans brain
  • Lesion was found, but also other evidence to suggest other areas may have contributed to failure of speech
  • Suggests Broca’s area may not be the only responsible region
  • Implications for other Broca’s aphasia patients
46
Q

AO3: Why have psychologists suggested that it is more important to investigate brain communication rather than specific brain regions

A
  • Wernicke claimed although regions are independent, they must interact to work
  • Dejerine showed an example of a man who could not read due to damage between connections between visual cortex and Wernicke’s area
  • Suggests interaction produce the complex behaviour and damage anywhere along the connection can result in impairment that resemble damage to localised areas, reducing credibility of localisation
47
Q

AO3: Why may brain localisation be reductionist and bias towards gender

A
  • Biologically reductionist as try to reduce complex human behaviour to one region and this does not provide a complex enough understanding
  • Herasty (1997) found women have larger Broca’s and Wernicke’s area explaining greater ease of language amongst women
  • Beta bias in theory as differences not considered
48
Q

What was the aim and procedure of Sperry and Gazzaniga (1967)

A
  • To examine the extent to which hemispheres are specialised
  • Word/image projected to patients left visual field (processed by right visual field) and vice versa
  • Information not transferred due to a cut corpus callosum
  • P’s had to describe what they saw, describe what they felt or draw what they saw
49
Q

What were the findings of Sperry and Gazzaniga (1967)?

A
  • When describing vision, left hemisphere could describe proving language production. Right hemisphere reported nothing shown
  • When describing feeling, left hemisphere could describe what they felt or pick the correct object. Right hemisphere could not describe what they felt but could pick correct object
  • When drawing, left hemisphere could not draw as well as the right showing right hemisphere better at visual motor tasks
50
Q

AO3: Why does animal research on split brain research reduce generalisability?

A
  • Assumed main advantage of brain lateralisation is to increase neural processing capacity (amount of tasks)
  • Roger (2004) found a chicken has lateralisation for finding food and being vigilant for predators. Enhances efficiency of both tasks
  • Impossible to conclude the same of humans
  • Split brain research also rare and idiographic approach taken
  • Conclusions only representative of individual so cannot be generalised to wider population
51
Q

AO3: Why has it been suggested lateralisation changes with age?

A
  • Szaflarki (2006) found language became more materialised to the left with increasing age in children but decreased after 25
  • Raises question about lateralisation, such as whether everyone has one hemisphere dominant one the other and if this changes with age
52
Q

AO3: Why has it been argued language is not restricted to the left hemisphere?

A
  • Turk (2002) discovered a patient who suffered damage to the left hemisphere but developed capacity to speak in right hemisphere
  • Lead to ability to speak about information presented to either side of the brain
  • Lateralisation is not fixed and the brain can adapt, providing support for plasticity
53
Q

Summarise Maguire’s (2002) research

A
  • Studied brains of London taxi drivers

- More grey matter in posterior hippocampus due to the learning of the knowledge

54
Q

How does functional recovery occur?

A

A process called neuronal unmasking where dormant synapses open connections to compensate for a nearby damaged area of the brain.

55
Q

AO3: What is the research support for plasticity and functional recovery?

A
  • Significant increase in grey matter in various regions of the brain after P’s played video games for 30 minutes a day over 2 months
  • Davidson demonstrated permanent change by meditation. Monks had more gamma waves (coordinate neural activity) than students who don’t meditate
  • Shows plasticity and ability to adapt due to new experience
56
Q

AO3: How does Maguire’s research support plasticity and functional recovery?

A
  • Positive correlation between hippocampus and time as a driver
  • Shows brain can changes in response to frequent tasks
  • However, this is biologically reductionist due to size of hippocampus
  • No other processes involved
  • Holistic approach more suitable to understand complex behaviour
57
Q

AO3: What does Elbert’s research show about plasticity and functional recovery?

A
  • While evidence supports functional recovery, he concluded capacity for neural reorganisation greater in children
  • Regeneration less effective in brains
  • Explains why adults find change more challenging than adults
  • Must consider individual differences when assessing likelihood of functional recovery
58
Q

AO3: What is the practical application of research into plasticity and functional recovery?

A
  • Application into neurorehabilitation
  • Understanding processes led to development of neurorehabiliation using motor therapy and electrical stimulation to counter negative effects
  • Thus demonstrates positive application and also showed electrical stimulation is sometimes needed for a full recovery
59
Q

Define biological rhythms

A

Cyclical patterns within biological systems that have evolved due to environmental responses. There are two key factors: endogenous pacemakers (internal) such as body clock and exogenous zeitgebers (external) such as environmental change

60
Q

Define circadian

A

A bio rhythm with a 24 hour cycle including sleep-wake cycle and body temperature

61
Q

Define infradian

A

A bio rhythm that lasts longer than 24 hours, usually weekly/monthly/annually. Examples include the menstrual cycle regulated by hormones

62
Q

Define ultradian

A

A bio rhythm that lasts less than 24 hours such as patterns of human sleep (REM and NREM)

63
Q

Define endogenous pacemakers

A

Internal mechanism that govern biological rhythms, such as the sleep-wake cycle. They can be affected by the environment. The most important being the suprachiasmatic nucleus

64
Q

Define exogenous Zeitgebers

A

Environmental events responsible for resetting the biological clock of an organism including social cues, meal times, and light

65
Q

Summarise the sleep-wake cycle

A
  • Circadian rhythm
  • Light is the input and resets the clock
  • Enters the eye, sends message to SCN
  • This coordinates activity for the entire circadian system
  • Homeostasis also plays a role
66
Q

Other than sleep, summarise another circadian rhythm

A
  • Body temperature
  • Lowest in the morning at 36 degrees and highest at evening at 38 degrees
  • Sleep occurs when core temperature begins to drop and stops when body temperature rises
67
Q

AO3: What is the research support for circadian rhythms?

A
  • Siffre (1975) found absence of external cues significantly altered circadian rhythm
  • When returned from underground stay with no clocks or light, he believed the date to be a month earlier
  • Suggests 24 hour sleep wake cycle increased by lack of external cues
  • Subject to criticism as he was the researcher and sole P so cannot generalise
  • Aschoff + Weber (1962) provides additional support for Siffre
  • Studied P’s in a bunker with no windows, only fake light
  • Longer cycle of 25-27 hours
  • Suggests humans use natural light to regulate 24 hour circadian cycle demonstrating importance of light
68
Q

AO3: Why may individual differences affect circadian rhythm research?

A
  • Important to note differences
  • Duffy (2001) found morning people prefer to rise and sleep earlier and vice versa
  • Demonstrates possibility of biological, innate differences suggesting researchers should focus on these differences during investigations
69
Q

AO3: Why may temperature be more important that light in circadian rhythms?

A
  • Buhr (2010) found fluctuations of temperature set timing cells in the body and caused tissues and organs to become inactive/active
  • Claimed information about light is transformed into neural messages that set body temperature
  • This fluctuates on a 24 hour circadian rhythm and even small changes have affects
  • Shows circadian rhythms are controlled and affected by several different factors and a more holistic approach is appropriate
70
Q

Describe the SCN’s role and location

A
  • Linked with pineal gland and lies in hypothalamus
  • Main endogenous pacemaker
  • Controls sleep, arousal and receives information about light
71
Q

How does light causes melatonin to be released?

A
  • Low light detected by eye
  • Sent to SCN via optic nerve and melanopsin
  • SCN sends single to pineal gland
  • Releases melatonin
  • This induces sleep
72
Q

AO3: What is the research support for endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers using hamsters?

A
  • Morgan (1955) bred hamsters so they have circadian rhythms of 20 rather 24
  • SCN neurons form abnormal hamsters implanted into normal ones
  • These the displayed the same abnormal cycle
  • Demonstrates significance of SCN and how endogenous pacemakers are important
  • Flawed due to hamsters and their difference
  • Difference in environmental context also
  • Not generalisable
73
Q

AO3: What is the research support for the role of melanopsin?

A
  • Skene and Arendt (2007)
    claimed the majority of blind people who still have light perception have normal circadian rhythms unlike those with no light perception and hence abnormal circadian rhythms
  • Demonstrates importance of exogenous zeitbegers and impact on circadian rhythms
74
Q

AO3: Why may pacemakers and zeitbegers be considered biologically reductionist?

A
  • Behaviourist approach would assume people and social norms as an influence
  • E.g we sleep when dark as this is a social norm
  • However, research only looks at a biological aspect and hence is reductionist as only considers one element rather than other viewpoints
75
Q

Summarise an example of an infradian rhythm

A
  • Regulated by hormones that promote ovulation and stimulate the uterus
  • Ovulation occurs halfway through the cycle when oestrogen is high
  • After ovulation, progesterone levels increase for implantation
  • 28 days is the average with variation from 23 to 36 days
76
Q

AO3: What is the research support for Reinberg (1967) for infradian cycles?

A
  • Examined a woman who spent three months in a cave with only a lamp
  • Menstrual cycle shortened to 25.7 days
  • Suggests lack of light affected menstrual cycle and demonstrates effect of external factors
77
Q

AO3: What is the research support for infradian cycles by Russel (1980)?

A
  • Found female menstrual cycles are synchronised through odour exposure
  • Sweat samples from one group rubbed on to another groups lips
  • Menstrual cycles became synchronised
  • Suggests pheromones can affect those nearby and shows external factors must be considered and holistic approach more appropriate to take as either pacemaker may be involved
78
Q

AO3: What is the research support for infradian cycles by Pentol-Volk (1999)

A
  • Found woman expressed preferences for feminised faces at least fertile and masculine at most fertile
  • Indicates sexual behaviour motivated by infradian rhythms and hence shows research is important as shows us relation to human behaviour
79
Q

Summarise an example of an ultradian rhythm

A
  • Sleep cycle of 90 minutes
  • Stage 1 and 2 of light sleep show alphas and theta waves
  • Stage 3 and 4 are deep sleep that show delta waves
  • Stage 5 is REM sleep where someone is paralysed
80
Q

AO3: Why may individual differences be a problem with ultradian rhythm research?

A
  • Tucker (2007) found differences between P’s for duration, especially stage 3 and 4
  • Demonstrates innate differences, and that we should focus on these differences
  • Tucker was a lab setting, so differences not due to situation but biology
81
Q

AO3: Why may the way we research ultradian rhythms tell us little about them?

A
  • Sleep pattern research means P’s must be subject to specific level of control
  • May be invasive and hence lead them to sleep in a way that is not ordinary
  • Leads to lack of ecological validity which could lead to false conclusions
82
Q

AO3: How was the flexibility of ultradian rhythms investigated?

A
  • Randy Gardener remained awake for 24 hours
  • Experienced blurred vision and disorganised speech
  • After this experience, he slept for only 15 hours and over several nights, recovered 25% of lost sleep
  • 70% of stage 4 and 50% of REM recovered
  • Highlight the degree of flexibility in terms of different stages within the sleep cycle
83
Q

What is an fMRI?

A

A functional magnetic resonance imaging is a brain scanning technique that measures blood flow during a task. It works on the basis that neurons most active during a task use the most energy and hence need more blood. An fMRI creates a dynamic 3D map of the brain

84
Q

What is an electroencephalogram?

A

A brain scan that works on the basis that information is processed in the brain as electrical activity in the form of action potentials along neurons. They measure electrical activity through electrodes attached to the scalp. Small electrical charges are detected by electrodes and are graphed over a period of time

85
Q

What is an event relate potential?

A

A brain scan that measures electrical activity but involves presentation of a stimulus to the participant and the researcher looks for activity related to the stimulus

86
Q

What is a post-mortem examination?

A

When researchers study the physical brain of a person who displayed a particular behaviour when alive suggesting possible brain damage.

87
Q

How does an fMRI show a map off the brain and what are the characteristics of an fMRI?

A

Detects magnetic quality of oxygenated and deoxygenated haemoglobin. fMRI have a spatial resolution of 1-2mm and temporal of 1-4s

88
Q

Evaluate fMRI scans

A
  • Noninvasive as does not involve insertion/radiation. Hence risk free and more P’s can participate
  • Good spatial resolution of 1-2mm(smallest feature measurement) so can discriminate against regions with accuracy
  • Poor temporal resolution of 1-4s so cannot predict onset of brain activity
  • Do not provide a direct measure of neural activity, only blood flow so cannot infer causation at neural levels so unable to conclude whether region is associated with function. They also do not show communication between brain areas
89
Q

How does an electroencephalogram and EER work?

A
  • Small electrodes attached to brain
  • These measure amplitude (intensity of activity) and frequency (speed or quantity)
  • Electroencephalogram produces either synchronised (recognised waveform) or desynchronised patterns
  • ERP use the same equipment but a stimulus is presented many times and the graph is averaged out to reduce extraneous neural activity
  • Latency = time between stimulus
  • Within 100ms is sensory and after is cognitive
90
Q

Evaluate EEGs and ERPs

A
  • Noninvasive Noninvasive as does not involve insertion/radiation. Hence risk free and more P’s can participate. However, may be uncomfortable and this may affect results
  • Bad spatial resolution so cannot provide information on deeper regions
  • Good temporal resolution so accurate measurement of electrical activity when undertaking specific tasks
  • EEG: Electrical activity detected in several Brian regions so hard to pinpoint
  • ERP: Enable determination of how processing is affected by experimental manipulation and hence a strength as can manipulate extraneous neural activity

Psychology - Paper 2 (3 decks)

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