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Psycholgy > Biopsychology > Flashcards

Biopsychology Flashcards

1
Q

What is the nervous system?

A

Two main components:

1) Central Nervous System
- brain and spinal cord

2) Peripheral Nervous system
- somatic nervous system
- autonomic nervous system
• sympathetic nervous system
• parasympathetic nervous system

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2
Q

What is the CNS about? (Include brain, four main lobes and brain stem)

A

the BRAIN deals with conscious awareness involved in our psychological processes.
4 main lobes:
1) Occipital lobe (visual info),
2) temporal (auditory info),
3) parietal (integrates info from senses and spatial navigation) and the
4) frontal lobe (higher order functions e.g logic)

the BRAIN STEM connects brain and spinal cord and controls involuntary processes e.g breathing

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3
Q

What is the CNS about? (Include spinal cord functions)

A

Transfers messages to and from the brain and the rest of the body.

Also, responsible for simple reflex actions e.g jumping out of your chair when if you sit on a pin

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4
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system?

A

Includes: somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system which is divided into sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system

PNS is responsible for relaying messages from the CNS to the rest of the body

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5
Q

What is the Somatic Nervous System of the PNS?

A

Maintains communication between CNS and the outside world

Made up of SENSORY RECEPTORS (carry info to spinal cord and brain), MOTOR PATHWAYS (allow brain to control movement)

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6
Q

What is the Autonomic Nervous System of the PNS?

A

Plays role in homeostasis which maintains internal processes.

Only consists of motor pathways and has 2 components:

1) Sympathetic Nervous System
2) Parasympathetic Nervous System

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7
Q

What is the role of SNS and ANS of the Autonomic Nervous System?

A

1) Sympathetic NS: prepare body for fight or flight e.g increase heart rate, blood pressure and decrease of digestion
2) Parasympathetic NS: returns body to normal resting state e.g digestion is started again

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8
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

A network of glands across the body that secrete hormones

It also uses blood vessels to transport hormones around the body to a specific target cell.

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9
Q

Explain the role of the hypothalamus

A

It is connected to the PITUITARY GLAND and stimulates the release of hormones from this gland

Therefore, the hypothalamus is the control system of the endocrine system

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10
Q

Explain the pituitary gland

A

It is the master gland as hormones released by this gland control the release of hormones from other glands in the endocrine system

It is divided into the anterior and posterior lobes which release different hormones

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11
Q

What does the anterior (front) lobe do?

What does the posterior (rear) lobe do?

A

Anterior: Releases ACTH which stimulates the adrenal Cortez and release of cortisol.

Posterior: Releases oxytocin which is responsible for uterus contractions during childbirth

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12
Q

What does the pineal gland do?

How does light affect melatonin?

A

main hormone released from this gland is melatonin which is responsible for biological rhythms e.g sleep-wake cycle

Light affects melatonin intake. During winter less light is produced therefore leading to symptoms such as seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

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13
Q

What is the thyroid gland?

Relate to metabolism.

A

Releases thyroxine which is responsible for regulating metabolism

People who have a fast metabolism struggle to put on weight as metabolism is involved in the chemical process of converting food to energy

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14
Q

What is the function of the adrenal gland?

A

The adrenal gland is divided into two parts:

1) adrenal medulla (inside of gland) releases adrenaline and noradrenaline play a role in fight or flight
2) adrenal cortex (outside) releases cortisol to stimulate release of glucose while suppressing the immune system

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15
Q

What is the role of the testes?

A

Release androgens which include the main hormones testosterone

Testosterone is responsible for the development of male sex characteristics during puberty and also muscle growth

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16
Q

What is the role of the ovaries?

A

Release oestrogen which controls regulation of female reproductive system, including menstrual cycle and pregnancy.

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17
Q

What are neurons?

A

Specialised cells carrying neural info throughout the body it can be either : 1) sensory 2) relay 3) motor

structure of neuron
1. Dendrite, sensory, cell body(CB), myelin sheath, axon, CB, axon and relay, CB, dendrites, motor and Axon.

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18
Q

What is the function of the sensory neuron?

A

Carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors to brain and spinal cord. When reach the brain they are translated to sensations

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19
Q

Function of relay neurons

A

Allow sensory and motor neurons from synapses to communicate with each other

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20
Q

Function of motor neuron

A

Form synapses with muscles and control their contractions and when stimulates thu release neurotransmitters that bind to receptors on muscle triggering response of muscle movement.

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21
Q

What is the process of synaptic transmission?

A

1) Info is passed down axon as an electrical impulse called action potential (AP)
2) AP reaches end of axon and transfers to another neuron and crosses the synaptic gap
3) When AP reaches synaptic vesicles, they release neurotransmitters
4) Neurotransmitters carry signal across synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites
5) Once receptors are activated, they produce excitatory or inhibitory effects on post synaptic cell
6) re-uptake. Neurotransmitter is taken up again by presynaptic neuron

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22
Q

What is the excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

Excitation: receptor stimulation results in an increase in the positive charge of postsynaptic neuron increasing neuron firing.

Inhibition: receptor stimulation results in an increase in negative charge of postsynaptic neuron and decreases likelihood of neuron firing.

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23
Q

What is the excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters?

Refer to summation

A

Summation is the addition of positive and negative post synaptic potentials. Nerve cell can receive both + and - potentials simultaneously. These potentials are summed and if the effect excitatory the neuron is more likely to be fired. Vice Versa for inhibitory.

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24
Q

Explain Fight or Flight

A

1) Person enters stressful situation
2) Amygdala is activated sending distress signal to hypothalamus
3) Hypothalamus activates SAM pathway running to the adrenal medulla and Sympathetic Nervous System
4) The SNS stimulates adrenal medulla
5) Adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline into bloodstream
6) Adrenaline causes physiological changes to prepare the body for flight or fight.

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25
Q

Evaluate the Fight or Flight

A

1) Females tend and befriend: have different System to cope with stress as they protect their offspring (tending) and form protective alliances (befriending). Oxytocin is released to increase relaxation and decrease stress
2) Negative consequences of ForF as increased blood pressure can lead to damage to blood vessels and eventually heart disease
3) Freeze: stop, look and listen response can occur as to look for new info in order to make the best response to threat e.g Fight or Flight

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26
Q

Explain localisation of brain functions

Refer to the holistic view and the localisation theory

A

Holistic View: all parts of the brain were involved in the processing of thought and action

Localisation theory: different parts of the brain perform different tasks and are involved with different parts of the body

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27
Q

Explain the hemispheres of the brain

Refer to left, right and cerebral cortex

A

Left: controls right side of the body and deals with analytical thought, language, science and maths

Right: controls left side of the body and deals with holistic thoughts, creativity, art and music

Cerebral Cortex: outer layer of both left and right hemispheres

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28
Q

What is lateralisation?

A

Some of our physical and psychological functions are controlled by a particular hemisphere.

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29
Q

Describe the motor and somatosensory Cortex

A

Motor Cortex: at the back of the frontal lobe in both hemispheres. Controls voluntary movement in opposite sides of the body

Somatosensory Cortex: sensory info from the skin e.g heat is represented. Amount of somatosensory area devoted to a particular body part denotes its sensitivity

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30
Q

Describe the visual and auditory cortex

A

Visual cortex: found in occipital lobe in back of brain. Each eye sends info to right visual field to the left visual cortex

Auditory cortex: found in temporal lobe and analyses speech based info

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31
Q

Brain structure from left to right

Label of it

A

Frontal lobe (motor) and Broca is there,
Next to frontal is Parietal lobe (somatosensory),
under those two lobes is the temporal lobe (auditory) and wernicke is there,
next to parietal and temporal is occipital (visual)
Under temporal and occipital is the cerebellum
Next to cerebellum on left hand side is brain stem

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32
Q

Explain the language area of the brain (left hemisphere)

Refer to broca and wernicke

A

Broca: area in frontal lobe in L.Hemisphere responsible for speech production. Damage to Broca area causes Broca’s aphasia e.g slow speech

Wernicke: Area of temporal lobe in L.Hemisphere responsible for language comprehension. Results into Wernicke’s aphasia if damaged and produce nonsense words as part of their speech

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33
Q

Explain two ways to evaluate Localisation

Refer to Phineas Gage

A

Case Study evidence: Phineas Gage suffered from severe destruction to his frontal lobe following an explosion that forced a metal rod through his brain. His personality had changed as prior to accident he was balanced minded. However, after accident no one could employ him as he was now rude and blasphemous. This supports localisation theory as the frontal lobe is responsible for personality, planning and sexual behaviour

34
Q

Explain two ways to evaluate Localisation

Refer to Peterson (brain scans)

A

1) Peterson used brain scans to demonstrate how Wernicke’s area was active during Listening tasks and Broca was active during a reading task, suggesting that these areas are responsible for specific functions. There now exists objective methods to measuring brain activity e.g FMRI providing scientific evidence of Localisation of brain function

35
Q

Explain two ways to evaluate Localisation

Refer to Lashley (plasticity)

A

2) There are several cases of stroke victims being able to recover those abilities lost as a result of illness or an accident. Lashley suggested that the law equipotentiality occurs whereby surviving brain circuits chip in so the same neurological action can be achieved. Therefore Localisation can be the notion of plasticity.

36
Q

What is brain plasticity?

A

The brains tendency to change and adapt as a result of experience and new learning

37
Q

An example of brain plasticity

Refer to babies, age and synaptic pruning.

A

Babies brains experience rapid growth in synaptic connections hence why they sleep a lot.

As we age, rarely used connections are deleted and frequently used connections are strengthened this is called synaptic pruning

Research suggests at any time in life, neural connections can change as a result of learning new experience

38
Q

Name two research in support of plasticity

A

Maguire: found more volume of grey matter in the posterior hippocampus in cab drivers than in a matched control group

Mechelli: found larger parietal Cortex in the brains of people who were bilingual compared to matched monolingual controls

39
Q

Evaluate plasticity

refer to animal studies

A

Research found that when sewing one eye of a kitten shut and analysed the brain’s cortical responses, the visual cortex associated with the eye shut was not idle but continued to process information

40
Q

What is functional recovery?

A

A form of plasticity following damage after trauma. The brain transfers functions usually performed by the damaged area to a different area of the brain

41
Q

Explain how the processes involved in brain recovery following trauma

Refer to axonal sprouting and recruitment of homologous (Broca example)

A

Brain can reorganise itself by forming new synaptic connections close to area of damage.

Axonal sprouting: growth of new nerve endings which connect with undamaged nerve cells forming new neuronal pathways

Recruitment of homologous: e.g if broca’s are was damaged on left side of the brain, the right sided equivalent would carry out its functions. After a while, functionality may shift back to left side.

42
Q

What is split brain research into hemispheric lateralisation?
Refer to corpus colosseum

A

In healthy individuals the 2 hemispheres are connected by corpus colosseum allowing the 2 hemispheres to communicate

People suffering with severe epilepsy undergo surgery to cut communication from 2hemispheres (commissurotomy procedure which cuts corpus colosseum)

This is why they are call split brain patients allowing researchers to discover specific functions for each hemisphere

43
Q

Explore Sperry’s research into hemispheric lateralisation (split brain)
Refer to his procedure (key clue: images or word projected)

A

An image or word would be projected to patients right visual field (processed by L.Hemisphere) and the same image or word would be projected to the Left visual field (processes by R.Hemisphere) due to the fact that split brain patients have had their corpus colosseum cut, presenting image to one hemisphere meant that info could not be conveyed from that hemisphere to another.

44
Q

what are the Key findings of Sperry? (Split brain) in terms of describing what you see (DWYS) and recognising by touch (RBT)

A

DWYS: patients inability to describe objects in Left visual field was because of the lack of language centres in the Right hemisphere. A normal brain. Messages from RHemisphere would be relayed to language centres in LH

RBT: Patients were not able to verbally identify what they had seen but could understand what the object was by using the RH to select corresponding object

45
Q

what are the Key findings of Sperry? (Split brain) in terms of Drawing task and recognising faces

A

DT: if two words were presented simultaneously, one on either side of visual field, the patients would write with their left hand ‘key’ but say the word ‘ring’

RF: when a composite picture made up of two halves of a face, the LH dominated in terms of verbal description, whereas the RH dominated in terms of selecting matching picture. Therefore, RH dominated in terms of recognising faces

46
Q

Evaluation of split brain

Refer to impact of split brain research in reference to Sperry

A

Sperry’s research provided insight into hemispheric lateralisation of brain functioning. Main conclusions are that verbal tasks are dominated by LH whilst spatial tasks are dominated by RH of the brain. The LH is labelled the analyser and the RH as the synthesiser. These findings have contributed to our understanding of the brains processes have aided

47
Q

Evaluation of split brain
Refer to Sperry’s methodology
(Key Clue: fixation, quick flash, standardised and replicability and validity)

A

Procedures used to conduct split brain research are recognised for their scientific and ground-braking methodology. Sperry’s method ensured that ppts stared at fixation point whilst one eye was blind folded. The image was flashed quickly meaning that they did not have enough time to spread info to both sides of the brain. This is standardised procedure could be easily replicated to check the validity of the results

48
Q

What are the four techniques/scans of investigating the brain?

A

FMRI:

EEG:

ERP:

Post-Mortem Examinations:

49
Q

Explain fMRI

A

Detects changes in blood oxygenation that occur as a result of brain activity specific parts of the brain. FMRI produces 3D images showing which parts of the brain are involved in a particular mental process and this has important implications in our understanding of Localisation of function

50
Q

Explain EEG

A

Measure electrical activity with brain via electrodes that are fixed to an individual scalp using a skull cap. Scan recordings represent brainwave patterns generated from action of millions of neurons. Used by clinicians as a diagnostic tool as unusual arrhythmic patterns of activity may indicate neurological abnormalities such as epilepsy.

51
Q

Explain ERP

A

Brain’s elcetrophysiological response to a specific sensory, cognitive or motor event can be isolated through statistical analysis of EEG data

52
Q

Explain Post-Mortem Examinations (PME)

A

Analysis of a person’s brain following their death. In psychology they are likely to have rare disorder

53
Q

Evaluation of fMRI’s
refer to radiation
refer to cost and time-lag

A

STRENGTH: Unlike PET scans, they do not rely on radiation and if administered properly it is risk disk and straightforward to use. Provides a clear image of how brain activity is localised.

WEAKNESS: It is expensive compared to other techniques and can only provide clear image if person stays still. It has poor temporal resolution as there’s a 5sec time lag behind image on screen and initial firing of neuron activity.

54
Q

Evaluation of EEG
refer to epilepsy and ultradian rhythms
refer to distinguish of activities

A

STRENGTH: provided diagnosis of epilepsy at which the random bursts of activity in the brain can be easily detected on the screen. Also contributed to the understanding of ultradian rhythms and has high temporal resolution and can detect brain activity of a single millisecond

WEAKNESS: doesn’t allow the researcher to distinguish between activities originating in different but adjacent locations

55
Q

Evaluation of ERP
refer to temporal resolution
refer to standardisation and methodology

A

STRENGTH: have excellent temporal resolution which has led to their widespread use in measurement of cognitive functions

WEAKNESS: lack of standardisation in ERP methodology between research studies making it difficult to confirm findings

56
Q

Evaluate PME
refer to Broca and Wernicke
refer to ethical issues of consent

A

STRENGTH: Broca and Wernicke relied on PME studies establishing links between language, brain and behaviour and PME helped to improve medical knowledge and help generate hypothesis for further study.

WEAKNESS: PME raise ethical issues of consent from patient before death. Patients may not provide informed consent e.g Patient HM lost his ability to form memories and was not able to provide such consent

57
Q

What are Biological Rhythms?

refer to circadian, infradian and ultradian.

A

They vary in length and are classified according to how long they last. There are three main classifications :

1) CIRCADIAN: Cycles generally occur once every 24hrs e.g sleep-wake cycle is once a day
2) INFRADIAN: cycles occurs less than once every day e.g menstrual cycle
3) ULTRADIAN: cycles occurs more than once every 24 hours e.g light and deep sleep.

58
Q

Explain the sleep-wake cycle of circadian rhythms

A

Psychologists have investigated what happens when a person is free of such external cues (time) using temporal isolation studies whereby biological rhythm is allowed to run free and unaffected by external cues.

59
Q

Explain research into circadian rhythms

A

Siffre’s study: he spent long periods of time in an underground cave and had no daylight, clocks or radio. All he did was eat, write and slept when he felt he needed to, only thug influencing him was his internal clock. After 61 days he thought he resurfaced on the 17th of September however it was actually 20th of august.

60
Q

What does Siffre’s study show? (Evaluation)

A

1) study shows that circadian rhythms persist despite isolation from natural light, which demonstrates existence of an endogenous clock
2) however, it shows importance of external cues because the clock was not accurate and varied day to day

61
Q

Evaluate Circadian rhythms

refer to the practical application of shift work

A

SHIFT WORK: leads to desynchronisation of circadian rhythms and can lead to psychological effects. Research has shown night shift workers suffer concentration lapse at 6am, increasing likelihood of accidents and they are more likely to suffer heart disease as a result of stress of adjusting to sleep/wake cycles. Research has had economic implications in terms of preventing accidents at work place.

62
Q

Evaluate Circadian rhythms

refer to application of pharmacokinetics

A

By understanding Circadian rhythms and their impact on health it can determine the best time to administer drug treatments. For e.g risk of heart disease is greatest in the morning so drugs should be taken at night as they’ll be most effective at dusk. Meaning that there are peak times for administration of drugs that treat a range of disorders that increase their efficacy.

63
Q

Explain INFRADIAN rhythms in reference to Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

A

SAD is characterised by low mood and lack of interest of life and activities. It is triggered during the winter months as day light hours decrease. People develop SAD because during the winter, the pineal gland secretes more melatonin due to the lack of light and as a result serotonin is decreased.

64
Q

How can we treat SAD using phototherapy?

A

Involves a lightbox stimulating very strong light in the morning and evening for 30 minutes. This is thought to reset melatonin levels

65
Q

How can we evaluate Phototherapy as a method to treat SAD?

Refer to relief of symptoms
refer to counter argument of placebo effect

A

Research support of effectiveness of phototherapy in treating SAD as if was found that 60% of sufferers relieved symptoms of SAD.

COUNTER ARGUMENT: however, 30% of sufferers using sham negative ion generator were recorded to be subject to a placebo effect. Therefore, it’s difficult to conclude the chemical influence of phototherapy

66
Q

Describe the menstrual cycle in reference to infradian rhythms.

A

There’s one period every 28days. Ovulation occurs when oestrogen is at its peak and happens 10-16days before a start of a period. After ovulation, progesterone increases to help the womb lining grow thicker. The master gland regulating this cycle is the pituitary gland.

67
Q

Suggest research into the influences on menstrual cycle in relation to McClintock
refer to the aim, procedure, findings and conclusion

A

AIM: how menstrual cycle may synchronise due to female phenomenon
PROCEDURE: 29women of irregular periods. pheromones were gathered from 9 of them at different stages of period, using cotton pad on their armpit worn for 8hrs. Pads treated with alcohol and rubbed on their upper lip of the other ppts.
FINDINGS: 68% of women experienced changes to their cycle bringing them closer to the cycle of their odour donor
CONCLUSION: therefore, exogenous factors could influence a woman’s cycle

68
Q

How can we evaluate McClintock? refer to her methodology

A

Factors such as stress could influence a woman’s menstrual cycle. This is because confounding variables such as stress and change in diet can lead to a change in menstrual cycle. Menstrual synchronisation found by McClintock could have occurred by chance. Therefore, research cannot be generalised as it is a small sample and relies on women to self-report their own cycle.

69
Q

Evaluate McClintock’s study

refer to evolution

A

It’s argued that menstrual synchronisation has evolutionary purpose as females menstruate together to all be pregnant around the same time. This ensures new borns to be cared for collectively increasing chance of survival

70
Q

Explain the sleep cycle in relation to ultradian rhythms

A

It has 5 stages and lasts 90mins in total. Each stage is characterised by different brain activity.

S1: alpha, 5%of cycle, drowsiness, awareness of external environment, hypnotic jerks
S2: theta, 40-55%, light sleep, decreased muscular activity, unaware of environment
S3: delta, 4-6%, deep sleep, sleep walking, night terrors
S4: delta, 10-12%, deeper sleep, sleep talking, night terrors
S5: beta, 20-25, REM sleep, penile erection, dreaming, body paralysis.

71
Q

Evaluate the sleep cycle. Is there research support?

A

Research suggests there are distinct stages of sleep. REM activity during sleenwas highly correlated with experience of dreaming in brain activity according to how vivid dreams were. Ppts woken during dream gave accurate recall of it.

72
Q

Explain Endogenous Pacemakers (EP) and Exogenous Zeitgebers (EZ)

A

EP: internal body clocks that regulate our biological rhythms

EZ: external cues that affect our biological rhythms

73
Q

Explain EP in relation to SCN

A

SCN is a bundle of nerve cells in the hypothalamus and is the body’s main EP in maintaining Circadian rhythms e.g sleep-wake cycle.

1) light passes through SCN and then onto pineal gland
2) lack of light results into pineal gland increasing production of melatonin
3) melatonin induces sleep
4) when darkness ends and sunlight passes through SCN, melatonin from the pineal gland is decreased.

74
Q

Explain Animal studies into the role of SCN

A

DeCoursey: destroyed SCN in brains of 30chipmunks who were observed for 80days, after returning to their natural habitat they were killed by predators as their sleep/wake cycle had disappeared

Ralph et al: bred mutant hamsters with 20hr sleep/wake cycle when SCN cells from mutant hamsters were applied to brains of normal hamsters, cycles of second group defaulted to 20hrs.

75
Q

Evaluate use of animal studies

A

P: animal studies used to support EP have been criticised for ethical issues risen
E: DeCoursey’s study exposed animals to considerable harm when they returned to their natural habitat
E: therefore, we cannot generalise findings from sleep/wake cycle of animals to humans entirely
E: Consequently, whether insights gained from animal studies justifies harm they were subjected to is heavily debated

76
Q

Explain EZ in terms of light and social cues

A

LIGHT: it can reset the body’s main EP the SCN and thus plays a role in the maintenance of the sleep-wake cycle.

SOCIAL CUES: at 6 weeks of age, Circadian rhythms begin and at 16weeks babies are entrained. Schedules imposed by parents e.g. bedtimes influence this. Adapting to local times for eating and sleeping is an effective way of entraining Circadian rhythms and beating jet-lag

77
Q

Explain research into EZ

A

Campbell and Murphy investigate the extent to which light influences the sleep-wake cycle. 15ppts worked up at various times in the night and a light pad was shone on the back of their knees and found that this created deviation of their sleep-wake cycle of up to 3hrs. Therefore, light is a powerful exogenous cue and doesn’t need to be received through the eyes to influence our brain and affect our biological rhythms.

78
Q

How can we evaluate Campbell and Murphy in relation to EZ

refer to methodology

A

Some psychologists argue that there may have been limited light exposure to ppts eyes which acts as a confounding variable. The same results may not have been found as the study is yet to be replicated. Therefore, isolating one EZ in this way does not give full insight into many zeitgebers influencing the sleep-wake cycle.

79
Q

What happens when pacemakers and zeitgebers clash?

A

When our body becomes out of sync with the environment we are in we experience decreased alertness and feel irritable, anxious and tired.

80
Q

Explain the interactionist system to evaluate the EP and EZ

A

Research that isolates EP and EZ have been criticised for lacking validity. This is because only in exceptional circumstances are EP free-running and not affected by EP. The SCN and light interact with each other.

Psycholgy (7 decks)

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