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Pyscholohy- As Level 🙃 > Biopsychology > Flashcards

Biopsychology Flashcards

1
Q

The nervous system

A
  • The human nervous system is a complex network of nerve cells that carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to different parts of the body
  • helps all the parts of the body to communicate with each other
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2
Q

What is the human nervous system divided into?

A
  • central nervous system

- peripheral nervous system

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3
Q

Central nervous system

A
  • The CNS, comprising the brain and spinal chord, has two main functions: the control of behaviour and the regulation of the body’s physiological processes
  • In order to do this, the brain must be able to receive information from the sensory receptors (eyes, ears, skin etc) and be able to send messages to the muscles and glands of the body
  • This involves the spinal cord, a collection of nerve cells that are attached to the brain and run the length of the spinal column
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4
Q

What is the main function of the spinal chord?

A
  • To relay information between the brain and the rest of the body
  • This allows the brain to monitor and regulate bodily processes, such as digestion and breathing, and coordinate voluntary movements
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5
Q

How are spinal chords connected to different parts of the body?

A

By pairs of spinal nerves, which connect with specific muscles and glands
- For example, spinal nerves which branch off from the thoracic region of the spinal chord, carry messages to and from the chest and parts of the abdomen

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6
Q

What does the spinal chord also contain?

A
  • circuits of nerve cells that enable us to perform some simple reflexes with out the direct involvement of the brain, for example pulling your hand away from something hot. If the spinal chord is damaged supplied by spinal nerves below the damaged site will be cut off from the brain and will stop functioning
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7
Q

The brain can be divided into 4 main areas:

A
  • cerebrum
  • cerebellum
  • Diencephalon
  • brain stem
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8
Q

The cerebrum is divided into 4 different lobes:

A
  • Frontal lobes- involved with functions such as speech, thought and learning
  • Parietal lobes- processes sensory information such as touch, temperature and pain
  • Occipital lobes- processes visual information
  • temporal lobes- are involved with hearing and memory
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9
Q

The cerebrum is split down the middle into two halves:

How do the two halves communicate with each other?

A
  • cerebral hemispheres

- The two halves communicate with each other through the corpus callosum

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10
Q

Function of the cerebellum

What could abnormalities of this area result in?

A
  • it is involved in controlling a persons motor skills and balance, coordinating the muscles to allow precise movements
  • speech and motor problems and epilepsy
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11
Q

Describe the location of the diencephalon

A
  • the diencephalon lies beneath the cerebrum and on top of the brain stem
  • Within this area are two important structures, the thalamus and the hypothalamus
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12
Q

Function of the thalamus

A
  • the thalamus acts as as a relay station for nerve impulses coming from the senses, routing them to the appropriate part of the brain where they can be processed
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13
Q

Function of the hypothalamus

A
  • regulation of body temperature
  • hunger and thirst
  • also acts as a link between the endocrine system and the nervous system, controlling the release of hormones from the pituitary gland
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14
Q

Function of the brain stem

A
  • responsible for regulating the automatic functions that are essential for life
  • these include breathing, heartbeat and swallowing
  • Motor and sensory neurones travel through the brain stem, allowing impulses to pass between the brain and spinal chord
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15
Q

The peripheral nervous system (intro)

A
  • All nerves outside the CNS make up the peripheral nervous system
  • This function of this part of the nervous system is to relay nerve impulses from the CNS (the brain and spinal chord) to the rest of the body and from the body back to the CNS
  • There are two main divisions of the peripheral nervous system, the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
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16
Q

What are the two main dividing of the peripheral nervous system?

A

somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system

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17
Q

The somatic nervous system:

A
  • the somatic nervous system is made up of 12 pairs of cranial nerves (nerves that emerge directly from the underside of the brain)
  • 31 pairs of spinal nerves (nerves that emerge from the spinal cord)
  • these nerves have both sensory neurons and motor neurones
  • Sensory neurons relay messages to the CNS, and motor neurons relay information from the CNS to other areas of the body
  • The somatic system is also involved in reflex actions without the involvement of the CNS, which allows the reflex to occur very quickly
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18
Q

The autonomic nervous system

A
  • Involuntary actions e.g. Heartbeat and digestion

- these bodily functions would not work so efficiently if you had to think about them

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19
Q

The autonomic nervous system is broken into to parts

A
  • the sympathetic
  • the parasympathetic

-Both of these divisions tend to regulate the same organs but have opposite effects. This is because of the neurotransmitters associated with each division

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20
Q

Function of the sympathetic division:

Function of the parasympathetic division:

A
  • the sympathetic division uses the neurotransmitters noradrenaline, which has stimulating effects
  • the parasympathetic division which uses acetylcholine, which has inhibiting effects
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21
Q

Explain the parasympathetic nervous system

A
  • primarily involved in response that help us to deal with emergencies (fight or flight)
  • Such as increasing heart rate and blood pressure and dilating blood vessels in the muscles
  • Neurones from the SNS travel to virtually every organ and gland within the body, preparing the body for the rapid action necessary when the individual is under threat
  • for example, the SNS causes the body to release stored energy, pupils to dilate and hair to stand on end
  • It slows bodily processes that are less important in emergencies, such as digestion and urination
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22
Q

Explain the parasympathetic nervous system

A
  • the parasympathetic nervous system relaxes them again once the emergency has passed
  • The PNS slows the heartbeat down and reduces blood pressure
  • Another benefit is that digestion begins under PNS influence
  • Because the PNS is involved with energy conservation and digestion, it is sometimes referred to as the body’s rest and digest system
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23
Q

Outline the structure and function of neurones

A
  • neurones and cells that are specialised to carry neural information throughout the body
  • neurones can be one of three types: sensory, relay or motor neurones
  • neurones typically consist of a cell body, dendrites and an axon
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24
Q

What are the functions of dendrites?

A
  • receive signals from neurones or from sensory receptors

- they are connecter to the cell body, the control centre of the neuron

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25
Q

From the cell body,

A

The impulse is carried along the axon, where it terminates at the axon terminal

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26
Q

What is the myelin sheath?

What happens if It is damaged?

A
  • An insulating layer that forms around the axon
  • this allows nerve impulses to transmit more rapidly along the axon
  • if the myelin sheath is damaged, impulses slow down
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27
Q

Sensory neurones

A
  • Carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the spinal chord and brain
  • sensory neurones convert information from these sensory receptors into neural impulses
  • when the impulse leaves then brain, they are translated into sensations of, for example, visual input, heat, pain etc
  • not all sensory information travels as far as the brain, with some neurons terminating in the spinal chord
  • This allows reflex actions to occur quickly without the delay of sending impulses to the brain
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28
Q

Relay neurones

A
  • most neurones are neither sensory nor motor, but lie somewhere between the sensory input and the motor output
  • Relay neurons allow sensory and motor neurones to communicate with each other
  • these relay neurons lie wholly within the brain and spinal chord
29
Q

Motor neurones

A
  • neurons located in the CNS that project their axons outside the CNS and directly control muscles
  • Motor neurones from synapses with muscles and control their contractions
  • when stimulated, the motor neuron releases neurotransmitters that bind to receptors on the muscle and triggers a response which lead to muscle movement
  • when the axon of a motor neuron fires, the muscle contraction depends on the rate of firing of the axons of motor neurons that control it
  • Muscle relaxation is caused by inhibition of the motor neurone
30
Q

Explain the process of synaptic transmission

A
  • Once an action potential has arrived at the terminal button at the end of the axon, it needs to be transferred to another neuron tissue
  • It must cross a gap between the pre-synaptic neurone and the post-synaptic neurone (synaptic gap)
  • At the end of the axon of the nerve cell are a number of sacs known as synaptic vesicles
  • The vesicles contain the chemical messengers that assist in the transfer of the impulse, the neurotransmitters
  • As the action potential reaches the synaptic vesicles, it causes them to release the chemical messengers through a process called exocytosis
  • The released neurotransmitters diffuses across the gap between the pre and post-synaptic cell
  • It then binds to specialised receptors on the surface of the cell that recognise it and are activated by that particular neurotransmitter
  • Once they have been activated, the receptor molecules produce either excitatory or inhibitory effects
31
Q

What is re-uptake?

A
  • The neurotransmitter is taken up again by the pre synaptic neurone, where it is stored and made available for later release
32
Q

What determines how prolonged its effects will be?

A
  • How quickly the pre-synaptic neurone takes back the neurotransmitter from the synaptic cleft
  • The quicker it is taken back, the shorter its effects will be on the post-synaptic neurone
33
Q

How do some antidepressant drugs prolong the action of neurotransmitters?

A
  • By inhibiting the inhibiting the re-uptake process, leaving the neurotransmitter in the synapse for longer
34
Q

what can make neurotransmitters ineffective?

A
  • Enzymes that can ‘turn off’ the neurotransmitters
35
Q

Explain excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters

A
  • Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers that carry signals across the synaptic gap to the receptor site on the post-synaptic cell
  • Neurotransmitters are either excitatory or inhibitory
  • Excitatory neurotransmitters act as ‘on switches’ that increase the likelihood that an excitatory signal is sent to the post-synaptic cell, which is then more likely to fire
  • Inhibitory neurotransmitters are generally responsible for calming effects e.g inducing sleep and filtering out unnecessary excitatory signals
  • An inhibitory neurotransmitter binding with a post-synaptic cell results in an inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSp)
  • An excitatory neurotransmitter binding with a post-synaptic receptor causes an electrical change in the membrane of that cell, resulting in an excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP), meaning that the pst-synaptic cell is less likely to fire
36
Q

A nerve cell can receive both EPSPs and IPSPs at the same time. What is the likelihood of the cell firing determined by?

A
  • Adding up the excitatory and the inhibitory synaptic input
  • The net calculation (known as summation) determines whether or not the cell fires
37
Q

The strength of an EPSP can be increased in two ways:

A
  • Spatial summation: A large number of EPSP’s are generated at many different synapses on the same post-synaptic neurone at the same time
  • Temporal summation: A large number of EPSP’s are generated at the same synapse by a series of high-frequency action potentials on the pre-synaptic neuron
38
Q

What is the rate at which the cell fires determined by?

A
  • It is determined by what goes on in the synapses

- If excitatory synapses are more active, the cell fires at a much lower rate, if at all

39
Q

Define motor neurone

A

From synapses with muscles and control their contractions

40
Q

Define sensory neurone

A

Carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and the brain

41
Q

Define relay neurone

A

These neurones are the most common type of neurone in the CNS. They allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate with each other

42
Q

What is a synapse?

A

The conjunction of the end of the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another

43
Q

What is synaptic transmission?

A

The process by which a nerve impulse passes across the synaptic cleft from one neurone (the pre-synaptic neuron) to another (the post-synaptic neurone

44
Q

What is a neurotransmitter?

A

Chemical substances that play an important part in the workings of the nervous system by transmitting nerve impulses across a synapse

45
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A
  • A network of glands throughout the body that manufacture and secrete chemical messengers known as hormones
  • The endocrine and nervous system work very closely together to regulate the physiological processes of human body
46
Q

Endocrine glands:

A
  • Produce and secrete hormones, chemical substances that regulate the activity of cells or organs in the body- The major glands of the endocrine system include the pituitary gland, adrenal glands and the reproductive organs (ovaries and testis)
  • Each gland in the endocrine system produces different hormones
47
Q

How is the endocrine system regulated?

A
  • A signal is sent from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland in the form of a ‘releasing hormone’
  • This causes the pituitary gland in the form of a ‘stimulating hormone’ into the bloodstream
  • This hormone then signals the target gland to secrete its hormone
  • As levels of this hormone rises in the bloodstream, the hypothalamus shuts down secretion of the releasing hormone and the pituitary gland shuts down secretion of the stimulating hormone
  • This slows down secretion of the target glands hormones, resulting in stable concentrations of hormones circulating in the blood stream
48
Q

Outline the action of hormones

A
  • Hormones are chemicals that circulate in the bloodstream and are carried to target sites throughout the body
  • Although hormones come into contact with most cells in the body, a given hormone usually affects only a limited number of cells, known as target cells
  • Target cells respond to a particular hormone because they have receptors for that hormone
  • When enough receptor sites are stimulated by hormones, this results in a physiological reaction in the target cell
49
Q

What 2 things are critical for normal functioning? (hormones)

A
  • Timing of hormone release

- Levels of hormones released

50
Q

Too much or too little at the wrong time can result in dysfunction of bodily systems. For example what can too high levels of cortisol lead to?

A
  • Cushings syndrome which is characterised by high blood pressure and depression
    A cause of this is a tumour in the pituitary gland
51
Q

Outline the function of the pituitary gland?

A
  • The pituitary gland produces hormones whose primary function is to influence the release of hormones from other glands, and in so doing regulate many of the body’s functions
  • The pituitary is controlled by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain just above the pituitary gland
  • The hypothalamus receives information from many sources about the basic functions of the body, then uses this information to help regulate these functions
  • One of the ways it does this involves controlling the pituitary gland
  • As the ‘master gland’, the pituitary produces hormones that travel in the bloodstream to their specific target
  • These hormones either directly cause changes in physiological processes in the body or stimulate other glands to produce other hormones
  • High levels of hormones produced in other endocrine glands can stop the hypothalamus and pituitary releasing more of their own hormones
  • This is called negative feedback and prevents hormone levels rising too high
52
Q

Hormones produced by the pituitary gland:

A
  • The pituitary gland has two main parts: anterior (front’) and posterior (back)
  • These two parts release different hormones, which act on different target glands or cell
  • For example the anterior pituitary releases ACTH as a response to stress
  • ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol
  • The anterior pituitary also produces two hormones important in the control of reproductive functioning and sexual characteristics: LH and FSH
  • In females these hormones stimulate the ovaries to produce oestrogen and progesterone
  • In males they stimulate the testes to produce testosterone and sperm
  • The posterior pituitary releases oxytocin, which stimulates contraction of the uterus during childbirth, and is responsible for mother-infant bonding
  • Recent research using mice has found that oxytocin is indispensable for healthy maintenance and repair, and that it declines with age
53
Q

Outline the structure and function of adrenal glands

A
  • The two adrenal glands sit on top of the kidneys
  • Each adrenal gland is made up of two distinct parts
  • The outer part of each gland is called the adrenal cortex and the inner region is known as the adrenal medulla
  • The adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla have very different functions
  • One of the main distinctions between them is that the hormones released by the adrenal cortex are necessary for life; those released by the adrenal medulla are not
54
Q

Hormones produced by the adrenal glands

A
  • The adrenal cortex produces cortisol, which regulates or supports a variety of important bodily functions
  • Cortisol production is increased in response to stress
  • If the cortisol level is low, the individual has low blood pressure, poor immune function and an inability to deal with stress
  • The adrenal cortex also produces aldosterone, which is responsible for maintaining blood volume and blood pressure
  • The adrenal medulla releases adrenaline and noradrenaline, hormones that prepare the body for flight or flight
  • Adrenaline helps the bod respond to a stressful situation, for example by increasing heart rate and blood flow to the muscles and brain and helping with the conversion of glycogen to glucose to provide energy
  • Noradrenaline constricts the blood vessels, causing blood pressure to increase
55
Q

Outline the functions of the ovaries

A
  • The two ovaries are part of the female reproductive system
  • Ovaries are responsible for the production of eggs and for the hormones oestrogen and progesterone
  • progesterone, which is more important in the post-ovulation phase of the menstrual cycle, has also been found to be associated with heightened sensitivity to social cues that indicate the presence of social opportunity e.g recruiting allies or threat that would be significant in the case of pregnancy
56
Q

Outline the functions of the testes

A
  • The testes are the male reproductive gland that produce the hormone testosterone
  • Testosterone causes the development of male characteristics
57
Q

What are the endocrine glands?

A
  • special groups of cells within the endocrine system, whose function is to produce and secrete hormones
58
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A
  • a network of glands throughout the body that manufacture and secrete chemical messengers known as hormones
59
Q

What is the pituitary gland?

A

The ‘master gland’ whose primary function is to influence the release of hormones from other glands

60
Q

The amygdala and hypothalamus

A
  • when an individual is faced with a threat, an area of the brain called the amygdala is mobilised
  • The amygdala associates sensory signals with emotions associated with fight or flight, such as fear or anger
  • The amygdala then sends a distress signal to the hypothalamus, with functions like a command centre in the brain, communicating with the rest of the body through the sympathetic nervous system
  • The body’s response to stressors involves two major systems, one for acute stressors such as personal attack, and the second for chronic stressors such as a stressful job
61
Q

Response to acute stressors: The sympathetic nervous system

A
  • When the sympathetic nervous system is triggered, it begins the process of preparing the body for the rapid action necessary for fight or flight
  • The SNS sends a signal through to the adrenal medulla, which responds by releasing the hormone adrenaline into the bloodstream
62
Q

Response to acute stressors: Adrenaline

A
  • As adrenaline circulates through the body, it causes a number of physiological changes
  • The heart beats faster, pushing blood to the muscles, heart and other vital organs, and blood pressure increases
  • Breathing becomes more rapid in order to take in as much oxygen as possible in each breath
  • Adrenaline also triggers the release of blood sugar and fats, which flood into the bloodstream, supplying energy to parts of the body associated with the fight or flight response
63
Q

Response to acute stressors: The parasympathetic nervous system

A
  • When the treat is passed, the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system dampens down the stress response
  • Whereas the sympathetic branch slows down the heartbeat again and reduces blood pressure
  • Another benefit of parasympathetic action is that digestion begins again
64
Q

Response to chronic stressors:

A
  • if the brain continues to perceive something as threatening, the second system kicks in
  • As the initial surge of adrenaline subsides, the hypothalamus activates a stress response system called the HPA axis
  • This consists of the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland and the adrenal glands
65
Q

Response to chronic stressors: ‘H’ - the hypothalamus

A
  • The HPA axis relies on a series of hormonal signals to keep the SNS working
  • In response to continued threat, the hypothalamus releases a chemical messenger CHR which is released into the bloodstream in response to the stressor
66
Q

Response to chronic stressors: ‘P’ - the pituitary gland

A
  • On arrival at the pituitary gland, CHR causes the pituitary to produce and release ACTH
  • From the pituitary, ACTH is transported in the bloodstream to its target site in the adrenal glands
67
Q

Response to chronic stressors: ‘A’ - the adrenal glands

A
  • ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to release various stress related hormones, including cortisol
  • Cortisol is responsible for several effects in the body that are important in the fight or flight response
  • Some of these are positive whereas others are negative
68
Q

Response to chronic stressors: feedback

A
  • This system is also very efficient at regulating itself
  • both the hypothalamus and pituitary gland have special receptors that monitor circulating cortisol levels
  • If these rise above normal, they initiate a reduction in CRH and ACTH levels, thus bringing cortisol levels back to normal

Pyscholohy- As Level 🙃 (6 decks)

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