Biopsychology Flashcards
1
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The nervous system
A
Specialised network of cells in the human body, our primary internal communication system. Divided into the CNS and PNS
2
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Functions of the nervous system
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- Collect, process and respond to info in the environment
- Co-ordinate the working of different organs and cells in the bodt
3
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The central nervous system
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made up of the brain and spinal cord, origin of all complex demands and decisions
4
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Brain
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The centre of all conscious awareness. The brains outer layer (cerebral cortex) is highly developed compared to other animals. Split into 2 hemispheres
5
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Spinal Chord
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An extension of the brain, responsible for reflex actions
6
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Peripheral nervous system
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transmits messages via millions of neurones from CNS to rest of body, made of somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
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Somatic nervous system
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Carries sensory information from the outside world to the brain and provides muscle responses via the motor pathways
8
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Autonomic nervous system
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Plays an important role in homeostasis and maintains internal processes like body temperature. It branches off into the sympathetic nervous system (prepares body for fight or flight) and the parasympathetic nervous system (returns body to our resting state)
9
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The endocrine system
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A network of glands across the body that secrete chemical messages called hormones directly into the bloodstream. Different hormones produce diffferent effects on organs in the body
10
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Pituitary gland
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controls growth and regulates other glands
11
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Adrenal medulla
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Part of adrenal gland, secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline for flight or fight
12
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Adrenal cortex
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Part of adrenal gland, secretes cortisol
13
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Ovaries
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Secrete oestrogen and progesterone, which regulate female sexual development and reproduction and influence sexual behavior
14
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Occipital lobe
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Processes visual information
15
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Parietal lobe
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Receives sensory input for touch and body position and intergrates different sensory information from other senses
16
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Frontal lobe
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High order functions, planning, logic and abstract thinking
17
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Homeostasis
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The processes through which the body maintains a constant internal environment. The ANS does this by controlling the glands, muscles and organs
18
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Fight or Flight A01
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A person enters a stressful/ dangerous situation, the amygdala (which is in the limbic system) is activated and sends a distress signal to the hypothalamus. This activates the sympathomedullary pathway (SAM), which is the pathway running to the adrenal medulla and the SNS. The SNS simulates the adrenal medulla which secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream, causing physiological changes to prepare the body for fight or flight. Once the threat has passed, parasympathetic nervous system returns the body to normal.
19
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Effects of flight or flight on the body
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Slows digestion, inhibits saliva production, increases heart rate, stimulates glucose production, inhibits urination, dilates pupils and bronchi.
20
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FoF A03- FoF is a limited explanation of behaviour
A
P: human behaviour is not limited to the 2 responses
E: Gray in 1988 suggested the first response to danger is to avoid confrontation, which is demonstrated by a ‘freeze’ response. During this, humans are hyper vigilant while they assess a situation to decide the best course of action to deal with a threat.
E: This suggests the fight or flight explanation is limited as it does not explain the different ways that humans may respond to stress/ anger
21
Q
FoF A03- not fully explained in women
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P: the FoF response is an androcentric explanation of the stress response as early research was conducted on males
E: more recent research suggests that woman adopt a ‘tend and befriend’ response instead. Woman are more likely to protect their offspring and form alliances with other women. This highlights a beta bias as psychologists assumed that females respond in the same way as males.
E: the response is not fully explained in women.
22
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FoF A03- health effects
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P: the FoF response can have a detrimental effect on health, especially in modern life.
E: it may have been useful for our ancestors, who faced life threatening situations more commonly, eg. From predators. Hardly anything in the modern day requires as intense of a response.
E: this matters because activating the SNS can increase blood pressure, causing damage to their blood vessels and contribute to heart disease. This suggests FoF response is a maladaptive response in modern day life.
23
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Neurone
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Nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals
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Dendrites
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Recieve signals from other neurones or sensory receptor cells
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Axon
Long slender fibre that carries nerve impulses, in the form of action potential( an electrical signal) away from the cell body towards the terminal buttons
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Myelin sheath
Surrounds the axon for insulation so electrical impulses travel faster along the axon (not present in relay neurones)
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Terminal buttons
Communicate to other neurones using synaptic transmission
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Sensory neurone
Found in the sense receptors in the PNS and carry nerve impulses to the CNS, and are translated to sensations.
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Sensory neurone structure
Long dendrites, short axon
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Relay neurone
Found in the CNS, connect motor and sensory or relay to eachother so they can communicate
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Relay neurone structure
Short axon and short dendrites
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Motor neurone
Found in CNS, control muscle movements. When stimulated, they release neurotransmitters that bind to the receptors on muscles and glands to trigger a response
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Motor neurone structure
Short dendrites, long axon
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Action potential
When a neurone is not active → negative charge
When it is fired it becomes positive for a short amount of time causing an electric potential (p.d) and therefore a signal which travels to the end of the neurone
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When are signals electric and when are they chemical
Neurones are separated by a synapse. Signals within neurones are electric, but are chemically transmitted between the neurones.
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Synaptic transmission
1. Signal/ action potential reaches terminal button
2. Electric signal travels to end of the postsynaptic neurone
3. Vesicles release chemical called neurotransmitter
4. Neurotransmitter diffuses across synaptic cleft
5. Receptor sites on postsynaptic neurone take up the neurotransmitter
6. Chemical signal is turned back into an electrical impulse
7. Neurotransmitter left behind in the synaptic cleft broken down and absorbed
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Neurotransmitters
Have a specific shape to bind to the post-synaptic receptor sites
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Acetylcholine (ACh)
Found where motor neurones meet muscle and causes them to contract and release
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Serotonin (5-HT)
Regulates mood, behaviour, memory and more
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Excitation
Adrenaline causes excitation of the postsynaptic neurone. It increases the postsynaptic neurones positive charge, making it more likely to fire and pass on the impulse
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Inibition
Serotonin causes inhibition of the postsynaptic neurone. It increases the negative charge and makes it less likely to fire.
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Localisation of function
The idea that specific functions have corresponding locations in the brain
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NEED TO LOOK AT PHYSICAL FLASHCARD FOR DIAGRAM
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Motor area
Responsible for voluntary movements by sending signals to muscles in the body. Arranged in logical biological order, eg region that controls the hand is next to the region controlling the arm. Damage → loss of movement/ paralysis
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Somatosensory area
Receives sensory information from the skin to produce sensations related to pain, pressure and temperature. Different parts recieve different messages from different body parts. The area is highly adaptable. Damage → loss of sensation
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Visual area
Receives and processes visual information. Right hand visual field is processed in left hemisphere and vice- versa. Contains different parts that process different info, such as colour, shape or movement. Damage → blindness/ imparement
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Auditory
Analysing and processing acoustic information. Left ear primarily for right hemisphere and vice versa. Different parts, main area involved with sound, volume, tempo and pitch. Damage → hearing loss/imparement
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Localisation of language- which hemisphere is it mainly
Left
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Broca’s area
Language production, aphasia is loosing this ability. In frontal lobe
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Wernicke’s area
Language processing and comprehension. Aphasia looses this ability. In the temporal lobe
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A03- tulving
P: there is a wealth of research evidence to support the idea that many neurological functions are localised
E: Tulving found that semantic and episodic memories display brain activity when thought about in different parts of the prefrontal cortex.
E: such research provides scientific evidence for localisation of brain function
52
A03- case studies
P: there are lots of case studies on patients with damage to Broca’s area (Tan) and Wernicke’s area that have demonstrated their functions
E: Broca’s aphasia is mostly caused by brain damage to that specific area, and Wernicke’s aphasia is an impairment of language perception, showing that each brain region for its role is important.
E: case studies provide evidence to support the idea that certain elements of language production and comprehension are localised in those 2 areas.
53
A03- dougherty cingulotomy
P: neurosurgical evidence
E: In extreme cases of OCD and depression, a cingulotomy can be performed. Dougherty reported on 44 people who had undergone this procedure. At a 32 week follow up, 1/3 had met the criteria for a successful response, and 14% had a partial response
E: suggests symptoms and behaviours associated with medical conditions are localised
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Plasicity
The brain’s tendancy to change and adapt (functionally and physically) as a result of experience and new learning
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Plasticity in infancy
In infancy, there is a rapid growth in synaptic connection, peaking at 2-3. Synaptic punting then occurs as we get older, deleting unused connections and strengthening useful ones, peaks at around 15,000 connections.
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Functional recovery
A form of plasticity, following damage through trauma, the brains ability to redistribute or transfer functions usually performed by the damaged areas to other areas
Carried out by axonal sprouting, recruitment of homologous areas, axonal unmasking and similar areas
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Axonal sprouting
The growth of new nerve endings which connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neuronal pathways.
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Recruitment of homologous areas
Similar areas on the other side of the brain take over
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Axonal unmasking
Secondary neural pathways that are not normally used are activated
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Similar areas
Opposite hemisphere takes over for that function
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Maguire taxi drivers
16 right handed male London taxi drivers brain scans were compared to 50 healthy right-handed non taxi drivers males. She found an increase in volume of the right posterior hippocampus of the taxi drivers, as well as a correlation between the amount of time spent as a taxi driver and the volume. This shows plasticity as the brain changed the volume of the hippocampus due to experience.
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Functional recovery A03- negative plasticity
P: plasticity can be negative
E: prolonged drug use has shown poorer cognitive functioning and an increased risk of dementia. In addition, amputees can develop phantom limb syndrome
E: the brain’s ability to rewire itself can have maladaptive consequences
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Functional recovery A03- neurorehabilitation
P: findings can be applied to neurorehabilitation
E: understanding in plasicity and functional recovery lead to the development of neurorehabilitation which uses motor therapy and electrical stimulation of the brain to counter the negative effects in motor and cognitive functions following accidents/ injury
E: this demonstrates the positive application of research in this area to help improve cognitive functions of people with injuries.
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Functional recovery A03- animal studies
P: there is research support from animal studies
E: Hubel and Wiesel (1963) sewed one eye of a kitten up and analysed the brains response. The part of the visual cortex for that eye was not idle but processed info from the other eye
E: this supports the idea of functional recovery lead
C: however,evidence from early neurological studies may be too unethical and not justify any information harboured
66
FMRI- functional magnetic resonance imaging
Measures blood flow in the brain when a person performs a task, and the neurones in the brain that are the most active use the most energy. Energy requires glucose and oxygen. Oxygen is released for use by the active neurones, and the haemoglobin becomes deoxygenated
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FMRI +/-
-does not rely on radiation so it is better for the vulnerable, virtually risk free if used correctly
-expensive
- non invasive
- poor temporal resolution (1-4s lag)
-spatial resolution accurate to 1-2mm
-causation: does not provide a direct measure of activity
68
EEG
Measure electrical activity through electrodes attached to scalp, by detecting small changed in voltage from action potentials in the neurones. Small electrical charges are detected by electrodes which are graphed over a period of time showing activity levels in the brain
69
EEG +/-
- helped in diagnosis of conditions such as epilepsy and sleep studies due to it being able to interpret info live
-cannot distinguish adjacent activity/ exact source of activity
-non-invasive but uncomfortable
- good temporal resolution, 1-10ms
-poor spatial resolution
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ERP- event related potential
Similar equipment to EEG, stimulus presented and the researcher looks for activity related to stimulus
71
ERP +/-
-non-invasive but uncomfortable
-lack of standardisation as it is impossible for there to only be one stimulus. Hard to collect pure data and replicate findings
-high temporal resolution 1-10ms
-poor spatial resolution
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Post mortem
Researchers study the physical brain of a person who displayed particular behaviour while alive that suggested possible brain damage. They are analysed structurally and compared to a neurotypical brain
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Post mortem +/-
-cannot show direct causation, the deficits shown may not link to deficits in the brain
-vital in producing early evidence about the brain, eg Broca and Wernicke’s areas. Improves medical knowledge and helps generate hypothesis for further studies
- ppts cannot give consent- HM
75
Biological rhythms
Distinct patterns of changes in body activity that conform to cyclical time periods. Influenced by endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgeibers.
76
Circadian rhythm and example
Rhythms that last 24h, sleep wake cycle
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Sleep wake cycle
1. Light provides primary input to system
2. First detected by eye, which sends messages in relation to brightness to the superchiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
3. SCN uses the info to co-ordinate activity of circadian system
4. Sleep-wake cycle is also controlled by homeostasis
78
Siffre’s cave study
Several extended periods of time underground to investigate biological rhythms. Deprived of natural light and sound, when he resurfaced he thought the date was a month earlier than it was. This suggested his 24h sleep wake cycle was increased by a lack of exogenous zeibtgeibers.
79
Aschoff and Wever’s research
2 ppts were in a WW2 bunker for 4 weeks, with only artificial light. They ended up with a sleep wake cycle of 25-27h.
80
Circadian rhythms A03- shift work research for economic benefit.
P: there is practical application
E: research has shown the consequences that can occur due to desynchronisation. At 6am for shift workers, there is a circadian trough so concentration decreases. Shift workers were also shown to be 3 times more likely to develop heart disease as a result of adjusting to different sleep wake patterns.
E: research may provide economic benefit on how to manage worker productivity
81
Circadian rhythms A03- drug guidelines
P:there is practical application to drug treatments
E: circadian rhythms have been found to co-ordinate heart rate, digestion and hormone levels, which has lead to research into peak timings to administer certain drugs.
E: guidelines in pharmacokinetics have been developed due to circadian rhythms research
82
Circadian rhythms A03- temperature vs light
P:some research suggests that temperature controls our body clock rather than light (Buhr 2010)
E: although light may be the trigger, the SCN transforms information about light levels into neural messages that set the body’s temperature, which also fluctuates on a circadian rhythm. It controls activity of cells and tissues, so small temp changed can drastically alter the body clock.
E: the temp may be more important than light in setting circadian rhythms.
83
Infradian rhythms and eg
A frequency of less than one cycle in 24 h, eg menstrual cycle
84
Menstrual cycle
Monthly changes in hormones which regulate ovulation. Cycle is around 28 days. Rising oestrogen causes an egg to be released (ovulation), then progestrone rises to thicken the lining and prepare for pregnancy. If it doesn’t happen, the lining sheds and menstruation occurs.
85
Infradian rhythms A03- pheromones
P: there is research evidence to show that menstrual cycles, although an endogenous system, could be influenced by exogenous factors.
E: 29 women had pheromones gathered by a cotton pad on their armpits and placed on the upper lip of another woman. They found 68% of the women’s menstrual cycles synchronised with the other female’s cycles.
E:this means that external factors such as pheromones should be taken into account when investigating infradian rhythms.
86
Infradian rhythms A03- exogenous zeitgebers
P: research suggests that the menstrual cycles is to some extent governed by exogenous zeitgebers.
E: Reinberg (1967) examined a woman who spent 3 months in a cave with only a small lamp to provide light. Reinberg noted that her cycle shortened from 28 days to 25.7 days.
E: this result suggets that the lack of light (an exogenous zeitgeber) in the cave affected her menstrual cycle and therefore this demonstrates the effect of external factors on infradian rhythms.
87
Ultradian rhythms and eg
Frequency of more than one cycle in 24 h, eg sleep cycle
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Sleep cycle
Stages of sleep can be tracked by an EEG. There are 5 stages which repeat approx every 90 mins, and the average person can have up to 5 full cycles a night.
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The stages of sleep
1. 4-5% of the cycle, light sleep and muscles slow down and twitch
2. 45-55% of the cycle, in which breathing and heart rate patterns slow.
3/4. Deep sleep, rhythmic breathing and limited muscle activity.
5. REM begins, brainwaves speed up and dreaming occurs.
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Ultradian A03- individual differences
P: the problem with studying sleep cycles is the differences observed in people, which make investigating patterns difficult.
E: Tucker et al 2007 found significant differences between ppts in terms of the duration of each stage, particularly stages 3 and 4.
E: this demonstrates that there may be innate individual differences in ultradian rhythms, which means that it is worth focusing on these differences during investigations into sleep cycles.
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Endogenous pacemakers
Internal body clocks that regulate many of our biological rhythms.
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Exogenous zeitgebers
External cues that may affect or entrain our biological rhythms
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EP and the SW cycle- SCN
the SCN is a tiny bundle of nerve cells in the hypothalamus in each hemisphere. Nerve fibres are connected to the eye cross in an area called the optic chiasm to the visual area of the cerebral cortex. Light is detected by eyes which sends messages in relation to brightness to SCN, and it uses the info to co-ordinate circadian system. A key EP in many animals
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EP and the SW cycle- pineal gland
The info is passed from the SCN to the pineal gland which is behind the hypothalamus such as day length and light levels. At night, the pineal gland secretes melatonin which can affect seasonal affective disorder.
95
A03- SCN study- mutant hamsters
P:there is research support for EPs
E:Mutant hamsters were bread with a 20h SW cycle. When the SCN cells were transplanted from the mutant hamsters to normal hamsters, their SW cycles went to 20h.
E:This suggests that the SCN has a large role in co-ordinating the SW cycle.
C:there are issues with animal research
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EZs- light
Light can reset the body’s main EP (the SCN) and has indirect influence on body functions such as hormone secretion and blood circulation. Siffres research can also back this up
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EZs- social cues
Infants have different SW cycles and are not entrained until at least 6 weeks, which is dictated by parent meal times and bed times. In addition, jet lag has been researched and it has been found that adapting to meal times helps overcome it.
98
A03- siffre support for EZs
P: research support
E: siffre, but explain that there is research bias and issues with generalisability and case studies.
E: therefore while this result suggests the 24 SW cycle was increased by a lack of EZ, the findings should be treated with caution, we cannot conclude fully if the findings are representative.
99
EPs and EZs A03- argument could be reductionist
P: despite research of EZs and EPs, the argument could be seen as reductionist for oversimplifying a complex human phenomena
E: it could be argued that the SW cycle is influenced by other people and social norms, eg. Sleep occurs when it is dark because it is a social norm, it is not normal to carry out daily routines at night.
E: the research discussed could be criticised for being reductionist as it only considers a limited range of factors, eg SCN/light and fails to consider wider viewpoints, suggesting our understanding is limited.
100
Hemispheric lateralisation
The idea that the two hemispheres are functionally different and that there is dominance of one hemisphere for different functions.
The right hemisphere controls the left hand side of the body and vice versa.
101
Corpus callosum
What the hemispheres are held together by, and it allows them to communicate.
102
Sperry’s split brain research (visual tests)
11 male split-brain patients (no corpus callosum due to severe seizures) and a comparison group.
‘Describe what you see’- picture shown to right visual field ( processed by left hemisphere), they could describe showing the superiority of the left hemisphere for language production. When a picture was shown to the L (processed by R) the patients reported no image.
103
Tactile tests
Objects placed in right hand (left hemisphere) patient could describe verbally what they felt or identify it by selecting an appropriate similar object from alternate objects. Objects placed in left hand (right hemisphere) patient could only wildly guess by could identify by choosing similar alternate object.
104
Drawing test
Objects in right visual field (left hemisphere) and drawn with right hand not as clear as when drawn by left. Shows superiority of right hemisphere for motor functions, same when presented in left visual field.
105
Hemispheric lateralisation A03- ideographic
P: the research only includes a few ppts and often takes an ideographic approach.
E: there were only 11 patients, all with epilepsy and some were on medication to control it.
E: therefore any conclusions drawn about hemispheric lateralisation are only representative of a small group, meaning the results cannot be generalised.
106
Hemispheric lateralisation A03- Szaflarki age research
P: research suggests it changes with age
E: Szaflarki found that language became more lateralised to the left hemisphere with increasing age up to 25. After this, it decreased with each decade of their life. This raises questions about lateralisation such as if dominance occurs in everyone/ changes with age.
E: it may be problematic to apply Sperry’s findings to a wider population, an individual’s age may matter more than previously thought.
107
Hemispheric lateralisation A03- methodology
P: strength of methodology
E: highly specialised and standardised procedures. He flashed images to one side for 0.1s so the other side could not process it, so he could vary basic aspects while maintaining control.
E: Sperry eliminated the liklehood of co-founding variables.
