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Biology > Biomolecules > Flashcards

Biomolecules Flashcards

1
Q

Name some differences between Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes

A
  • Division of labour
  • Nucleus
  • Histones
  • Membrane bound organelles
  • Circular DNA
  • Cytoskeleton
  • Flagella movement Beat (E) vs Rotate (P)
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2
Q

Name the function of the Golgi Complex

A

Packaging, Modifying and Distributing materials

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3
Q

Name the three materials of the cytoskeleton and their function

A

Actin filaments, interact with myosin motors, contracts and relaxes cell
Microtubules, interacts with kinesin and dynein motors, flagella
Intermediate filaments, scaffolding/structural

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4
Q

When do we define active transport as symport and as antiport

A

Symport- same direction, brings 2 in

Antiport- opposite direction, one in one out

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5
Q

Distinguish between Competitive, Non-competitive, Allosteric inhibitors and Allosteric activators.

A

CI- Binds to active site and blocks substrate
NCI- Binds to different site changing shape of active site
AI- Binding makes it less likely complex will form
AA-Binding makes it more likely complex will form

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6
Q

What is FtsZ

A

Completes fission into daughter cells in binary fission

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7
Q

Discuss different structures in anaphase

A 
Centrosome- whole region
Centriole- within centrosome
Aster- feels border of cell
Polar Microtubules- line up chromosomes at equator
Mitotic Spindles- attach to centromeres
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8
Q

Name the three epithelial cell types and where they can be found

A

Squamous- skin
Columnar- small intestine
Cuboidal- kidney

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9
Q

Name the three muscle tissue types

A

Skeletal- voluntary
Cardiac- involuntary
Smooth muscle- involuntary

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10
Q

What is connective tissue composed of

A

Loose cells (fibroblasts or stroma) in extracellular matrix

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11
Q

Which proteins respectively make the ECM rigid and stretchy

A

Collagen (bone, skin) and Elastin (lungs, arteries)

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12
Q

Name the three types of membrane receptor signal transduction pathways

A

Ligand-gated ion channel- direct transduction,
G-protein linked receptor- binding, g protein activates effector protein
Protein Kinase Receptor- indirect transduction via secondary messenger

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13
Q

Name some advantages to Closed Circulatory Systems

A
  • Faster/efficient
  • Control the distribution of blood
  • Delivers large molecules
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14
Q

What are the atrioventricular valves called

A

Mitral (L) and Tricuspid (R)

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15
Q

Outline the stages of heartbeat

A

Diastole, relax -lub- Systole, contract -dub- Diastole, relax

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16
Q

Name the three types of cardiomyopathy

A

Dilated- heart is weakened and enlarged, cannot pump blood effectively
Hypertrophic- heart muscles are thickened reducing space for blood
Restrictive- stiff heart muscles prevent proper filling of ventricles

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17
Q

In Starling’s Forces what does Blood and Osmotic Pressure do

A

BP- forces H2O, solutes out

OP- draws H2O back in, due to large protein molecules

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18
Q

What do baroreceptors and chemoreceptors detect?

A

Blood pressure changes (B) Blood chemical composition, O2/CO2 (C)

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19
Q

What type of cell receptors do amines have?

A

Intracellular and extracellular

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20
Q

Explain hypothyroidism

A

Low levels of thyroxine, Lots of TRH/TSH no negative feedback, thyroglobulin is poorly iodinated
Treatment: Synthetic T4

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21
Q

Explain hyperthyroidism

A

High levels of thryoxine, antibody binds to TSH receptor for constant stimulation
Treatment: prevents iodination of thyroglobulin

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22
Q

Name the three secretory cells in gastric pits and what they produce

A

Chief cells- Pesinogen
Parietal- HCl
Epithelial- Mucus

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23
Q

Name the checkpoint to the stomach

A

Lower oesophagal sphincter

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24
Q

What is food turned into?

A

Chyme

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25
Q

What is the function of bile?

A

Break down fats

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26
Q

What are the three sections of the small intestine and their functions?

A

Duodenum- site of most digestion

Jejunum/ileum- 90% of absorption

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27
Q

Name the two layers of smooth muscle in the large intestine

A

Circular muscle layer- innermost cells around gut, constrict gut
Longitudinal muscle layer- outermost cells along gut, shorten gut

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28
Q

Name some of the functions of glial cells

A
  • Secrete glia transmitters
  • Maintain interstitial environment
  • Assist in neuron repair
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29
Q

Which cells create myelin?

A

Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS)

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30
Q

Name the general functions of each brain lobe

A

Frontal- Feeling/Planning
Parietal- Touch/Pressure
Occipital- Visual Processing
Temporal- Recognising/Identifying, Naming Objects

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31
Q

Name the pneumonic devices for remembering Broca’s and Wernicke’s Aphasia

A

BA- Broken speech, trouble speaking

WA- What?, speaks gibberish

32
Q

What cells can be produced from each potency type?

A

Totipotent (zygote)- Whole organism
Pluripotent (blastocyst)- All cell types but not embryo
Multipotent (adult stem cells)- many types of cells but more limited
Unipotent (oogonia, spermatagonia)- one cell

33
Q

Distinguish respiration and ventilation

A

Respiration- oxidation of end porducts of glycolysis

Ventilation- movement of medium over gas exchange surface, water/air

34
Q

In gas exchange which factors are best to maximise and minimise?

A

Max- Surface Area, Concentration Gradient

Min- Diffusion Distance

35
Q

Explain positive cooperativity

A

Binding of 1st O2 increasingly eases binding of each following O2

36
Q

What is the Bohr effect?

A

The idea that increases in CO2 partial pressure or decreases in pH result in a lower affinity of Hb for O2

37
Q

Explain BPG

A

Higher concentration at high altitudes or when exercising and it reversibly combines with Hb releasing O2

38
Q

Explain the difference of myoglobin to haemoglobin

A

Myoglobin can hold only 1 O2

Higher affinity at low pressure

39
Q

Which ion is exchanged to let HCO3 out?

A

Cl-

40
Q

What is the adv. of being countercurrent to bloodflow?

A

It does not reach equilibrium, keeps growing, therefore, more gas exchange

41
Q

Explain to parts of Mucus Elevator

A
  • Epithelial cells line airways with mucus to capture

- Cilia sweeps debris towards pharynx to be expelled

42
Q

What is the purpose of surfactant in alveoli?

A

Reduces surface tension, prevents collapsing of alveoli which would mean inefficient ventilation

43
Q

When does the diaphragm constrict and relax and what pressure does this create?

A

Constrict-Inhalation, -ve pressure

Relax- Exhalation, +ve

44
Q

Which intercostal muscles are involved in exhalation/inhalation and the direction it goes?

A

Inhalation- external, pushes out ribs

Exhalation- internal, pulls in ribs

45
Q

Which section of the brain and which nerve assists in ventilation regulation?

A

Brainstem- medulla and pons

Phrenic nerve- controls contraction, lowers diaphragm

46
Q

Which receptors are sensitive to increase in CO2 or decrease in Pco2?

A

Chemoreceptors in the aortic and carotid bodies

47
Q

Name the three nitrogenous wastes from most toxic to least

A

NH3 > Urea > Uric Acid

48
Q

Which animals secrete each nitrogenous waste type?

A

Uric acid- land reptiles, birds, insects
Urea- mammals, amphibians, cartilaginous fish
NH3- aquatic animals

49
Q

What is removed from the thin descending limb and thick ascending limb and how?

A

TDL- permeable to H2O, medulla is high osmolarity

TAL- Na+/Cl- actively pumped out

50
Q

Where does most absorption occur?

A

Distal Convoluted Tubule

51
Q

What are some affects of angiotensin II?

A
  • Vasoconstriction
  • Na+ reabsorption, H2O follows
  • Stimulates thirst
52
Q

Where are sperm 1) produced 2) matured and stored?

A
  1. Seminiferous tubules

2. Epididymis

53
Q

What are the volume contributions of semen?

A

Sperm- 5%
Seminal Vesicles- 60%
Prostate Gland- 30%`

54
Q

What are the affects of LH/FSH in males and females?

A

Males- LH -> Testosterone
FSH -> Spermatogenesis, Inhibin- inhibits FSH
Females- LH/FSH -> Oerstrogen, Progesterone

55
Q

Name the phases of the menstrual cycle

A

Menstruation- 1-4
Follicular Phase 5-14
Ovulation 15
Luteal Phase 16-28

56
Q

In sperm where are mitochondria stored

A

Midpiece

57
Q

Give three examples of asexual reproduction

A

Budding, Regeneration and Parthenogenesis

58
Q

Detail the stages from male germ cell to spermatozoa

A

Germ cell, Spermatogonium, Primary Spermatocyte, Secondary Spermatocyte, Spermatid, Spematozoa
Germ Cell -> Primary Spermatocyte Mitosis
Primary Spermatocyte -> Spermatid Meiosis
Spermatid -> Spermatozoa Differentiation

59
Q

Detail the stages from oogonia to fertilised egg

A

Oogonia Mitosis to Primary Oocyte
Meiosis I arrests then Meiosis I to Seconday Oocyte
Meiosis II up to Metaphase to produce MII Oocyte
Meiosis II only finishes from fertilisation

60
Q

What do the sperm and egg respectively provide?

A

DNA/Centriole, Mitochondria/Cytoplasm

61
Q

What is the zona pellucida?

A

Glycoprotein coat around egg to allow one sperm in, binds with sperm to produce acrosomal reaction. Also prevents premature implantation after fertilisation

62
Q

What reaction changes the composition of the zona pellucida and which ion is involved in a wave?

A

The cortical granule reaction and Ca2+

63
Q

Why is human cleavage holoblastic and rotational?

A

H- cells are equal and completely separate

R- dividing horizontally than vertically for example

64
Q

What are cleavage stage cells known as?

A

Blastomeres

65
Q

What does compaction form?

A

A morula

66
Q

What fluid accumulates when blastomeres cavitate?

A

Blastocoel

67
Q

What does the inner cell mass and trophoblast respectively form?

A

The embryo and placenta

68
Q

What are the three phases of implantation?

A

Apposition- line up with endometrium
Attachment- loss of zona, direct contact with trophoblast, penetration begins
Invasion- trophoblast cells invade endometrial stroma

69
Q

What distinguishes the vegetal pole from the animal pole?

A

Large yolky cells that divide slowly

70
Q

Distinguish the four types of cleavage

A

Complete- eggs with little yolk, humans
Incomplete- eggs with a lot of yolk, cleavage furrows do not penetrate
Discoidal- embryo forms blastodisc which sits on top of yolk
Superficial- mitosis without cell division

71
Q

Which germ layers contribute what to the organism?

A

Endotherm- lining of gut, liver, lungs
Ectotherm- skin and nervous system
Mesoderm- muscle, bone, kidneys, blood, gonads, connective tissue

72
Q

What is mosaic development?

A

Each blastomere contributing to certain aspects of the organism, opposite of regulative development in humans

73
Q

What occurs in gastrulation?

A

Blastula inverts

  • blastopore or hole left by this develops into anus
  • cells moving inwards are called archenteron, its contact with ectoderm develops into mouth
74
Q

What is Kartagener’s Syndrome?

A

Affects cytoskeleton, increase in susceptibility lung infections due to paralysed cilia, sperm are immobile

75
Q

What’s the meaning of the terms

  • Superior
  • Inferior
  • Anterior
  • Posterior
  • Medial
  • Lateral
  • Proximal
  • Distal
  • Superficial
  • Deep
  • Intermediate
  • Caudal
  • Visceral
A
  • Above
  • Below
  • Towards the front (chest side)
  • Towards the back
  • Towards the midline
  • Away from the midline
  • Closest to point of origin
  • Furthest away
  • Towards the surface
  • Away from the surface
  • In between
  • Towards tail or posterior end
  • Same as deep

Biology (1 decks)

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