biology_praxis_flash_cards 33 Flashcards
What is Newton most famous for?
Newton: The three laws of motion (1643-1727)
Who is known as the father of geology?
Charles Lyell: Principles of Geology
Who came up with the Theory of Relativity?
Albert Einstein: Theory of Relatively (1879)
Who came up with Plate Tectonics?
Alfred Wagner (1900)
Who is responsible for The laws of Conservation of Matter?
Lavoisier and Dalton (1700 -1800)
What are Ernest Rutherford and Enrico Fermi well known for?
Radioactivity and Nuclear Fission
Who came up with The Evolution of Species?
Charles Darwin
What is Antonie van Leeuwenhoek well known for?
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek invented the microscope. He was the first to observe microorganisms. Discovery of the cell came afterward by Robert Hooke
Who wrote the book/paper “The Nature of Diseases and Germs” ?
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
What is the Industrial Revolution well known for?
Technological advances of steam engine (1800)
What is the difference between theory and law?
A theory does not eventually become a law. A theory describes one part of a law. The law is a general statement, where a theory describes a specific phenomenon. A theory is tested many times before it qualifies as a theory.
What is the DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRECESSION AND ACCURACY?
Precision deals with exactness. If a piece of chalk measures 5 grams. A student weights it three times: 8.8 g, 8.8 g, and 8.9 g. In this case, his data is precise, but not accurate. There is not a big difference between these numbers, but there is a big difference between these numbers and the actual weight of the chalk. Accuracy, on the other hand, relates back to the true weight value. Accurate results are the correct result, or closest to 5 grams.
What is the DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT?
Mass does not change based on locations. It is independent of any other factors. It is measured in grams using a triple beam balance.Weight varies based on location, and the impact of gravity force pulling on it. It is measured in Newtons.
What is the formula for CONVERTING FROM FAHRENHEIT TO CELSIUS?
C = 5/9 (F -32)
What is the formula for CONVERTING FROM CELSIUS TO FAHRENHEIT?
F = 9/5 C + 32
What is the independent factor?
the factor applied to the dependent factor to see how the dependent factor would be affected. This factor does not change, but it changes the dependent factor.
What is the dependent factor?
the factor changed due to the effects of the independent factor affecting it.
What is a control?
The factor kept constant without applying the independent factor to it. It is a differentiating factor to the dependent factor which had the independent being applied to. It is used as a comparison factor to the dependent factor.
What is the Scientific Method ?
o Purpose: The question that the experiment is testingo Research: Gather information o Hypothesis: Make an educated guesso Experiment: Test the hypothesiso Analysis: Gather data and compare resultso Conclusion: In the conclusions, one must reference the hypothesis, and then summarize the results.
What is an element ?
An Element is a substance that cannot be separated or broken down into simpler substance by chemical means (Examples: H, O, N, C, etc…).
What is an molecule ?
Molecule is a group of atoms that are held together by chemical force of the same element; a molecule is the smallest unit of matter that can exist by itself and retain all of a substance’s chemical properties (Examples: H2, O2, etc…).
What is a compound ?
A Compound is a substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds. All compounds are molecules, but not all molecules are compounds (Examples: H2O, NaCl2, etc.).
What is a mixture ?
A Mixture is a combination of two or more substances that are not bonded chemically (Example: A salad (tomatoes and lettuce pieces are not combined chemically; they are merely mixed)).
What is a chemical change?
A change that occurs when one or more substances change into an entirely new substance, which is made up of different properties (Example: wood to ash).
What is a chemical property?
A chemical characteristic that is unique to a specific substance. Boiling points and freezing point are examples of chemical properties.
What is a physical change?
A change of matter from one form, to another, without a change in the chemical properties of the substance (Example: H2O (water) to H2O (ice)).
What is a physical property ?
Characteristics the can be observed without changing the identity of the substance. Size and color are examples of physical properties.
What is a Ionic Bond?
the attractive force between oppositely charged ions, which form when electrons are transferred from one atom to another (metal + nonmetal).
What is a Covalent Bond ?
a bond formed when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons (nonmetal + nonmetal).
What is a Hydrogen Bond?
a bond formed between H, O, and N atoms.
What unit is used to measure length ?
Meter
What unit is used to measure mass ?
Kilogram
What unit is used to measure electric current?
Ampere
What unit is used to measure temperature?
Kelvin, Celsius
What unit is used to measure light intensity?
Candela
What is a homogenous mixture?
In homogenous mixtures, the components are evenly distributed. The mixture is the same throughout, such as apple juice.
What is a heterogeneous mixture ?
Components in heterogeneous mixtures are not evenly distributed. Example: salsa, orange juice with pulp, etc. …
What is an atom ?
An Atom is the smallest unit of an element that maintains all of its chemical properties.
What is a pure substance ?
A Pure substance is a sample of matter, which has definite chemical and physical properties.
What is a Density Column ?
A Density Column displays multiple layers of liquids that differ in density and solubility.
What is volume ?
Volume is a measure of the size of a region in three dimensions (H x W x L).
What is boiling point ?
Boiling Point is the temperature and pressure at which a liquid becomes a gas.
How are the particles arranged in a liquid?
In a Liquid, particles are close together, and are in contact most of the time.
What are the different ways to investigate scientific phonemes?
Direct observationsModeling Testing hypothesis
What is a conclusion in the scientific method?
In the conclusion, one must reference the hypothesis, and then summarize the results.
Matter can be divided into what three main categories?
elements, compounds, and mixtures.
What is matter
Matter is anything that has mass and takes place
What are liters ?
Liters is a standard SI unit of volume
What is a Metric System ?
The Metric System is a standard system of measurement.
What are carbohydrates?
Made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1
What are monosaccharide?
A Monosaccharide is a carbohydrate that is composed of one molecule of simple sugars such as Glucose.
What are disaccharide?
A Disaccharide is a carbohydrate that is composed of two molecules of simple sugars such as Maltose.
What are polysaccharide?
A Polysaccharide is a carbohydrate that is composed of two or more molecules of simple sugars, such as Glycogen and Starch.
What are polymers?
Polymers are built via dehydration reaction and broken down by hydrolysis reactions
What are lipids ?
o Structure: 3 fatty acids attached to 1 glycerolo Function: Energy storage, insulation, and protection
What are proteins?
o Joined by peptide bonds via Dehydration Reactionso Synthesis Stages: Primary, secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structures
What are the four structures of plants synthesis?
o Primary Structure: Chains of amino acidso Secondary Structure: 2 types:B sheets , Alpha helixo Tertiary structures are made up of R- groups interactions forming either Globular or Fibrous proteins.Interactions of hydrophobic and hydrophilic partso Quaternary Structure: Joining of polypeptides or proteins together
What are Simple Proteins?
They are composed only on Amino Acids
What are Albumin / GlobulinProteins?
They form carriers and enzymes
What are Scleroprotein?
Fibrous Structures i.e. Collagen
What are Conjugated Proteins?
Simple proteins + non-proteins
What are Lipoprotein?
Protein + Lipids
What are Mucoprotein?
Protein + Carbohydrates
What are Chromoprotein?
Protein + pigment
What are Metalloproteins?
Protein + Metal
What are Nucleoproteins?
Histone protamine + nucleic acids
What are Coenzyme?
Protein + non-protein ( organic/ not found in diet)
What are Cofactors?
Protein + non-protein that are nonorganicsubstances i.e. metal, Zn, Fe, or prosthetic group
What are Hormones?
Chemical Messenger
What are Enzymes?
Biological Catalyst
What are Structural Protein?
Physical Support
What are Transport Protein?
Transport
What are some characteristics of Enzymes?
o Enzymes decrease activation energyo Enzymes use substrates that interact with an active siteo Enzymes do not alter the equilibrium constanto Enzymes do not get consumed in the reactiono Enzymes are PH and Temperature sensitive
What PH environment best fits most enzymes?
o Most enzymes function best at a PH of 7.2. Few are acidic like Pepsin, which functions at a PH of 2 in the stomach. Others are basic such as Pancreatic Enzymes, which work best at a PH of 8.5 in the small intestine.
What are Competitive Inhibition?
o Competitive Inhibition: a “counterfeit” substrate,similar to the structure of the real substrate, attaches to the active site. The more of this substrate present, the more the competition. It competes with the real substrate for an interaction with the active site.
What are Noncompetitive Inhibition?
Noncompetitive Inhibition: IRREVERSIBLE: A“counterfeit” substrate forms a strong covalent bondwith the enzyme’s active site, making it nonfunctional.
What are Allosteric Inhabitation?
If a substrate attaches anywhere on the enzymebesides on the active site, the interaction is called an Allosteric Inhabitation.
What is the function of Protease?
Protease breaks proteins to Amino acids.
What is the function of Lipase?
Lipase breaks Lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
What type of bond forms between carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates: glycosides bonds
What type of bond forms between nucleic acids?
Nucleic acids: phosphodiester bonds
What type of bond forms between proteins?
Proteins: peptide bonds
What type of bond forms between lipids?
Lipids do not form chains
What macromolecules does not form monomers?
All Macromolecules form chains of joined monomers, except lipids.
What is the function of carbohydrates?
Function: Storage of energy glucose, glycogen: animal energy storage
What is the function of lipids?
Function: Energy storage, insulation, and protection
What are the synthesis stages of proteins?
Synthesis Stages: Primary, secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structures
What are the main components of Cell Theory?
o All living things are composed of cellso Cells are the basic unit of lifeo Chemical reactions regulate certain process within the cello Cells arise only from pre-existing cellso Cells carry genetic info on DNAs
What is the function of the Cell Membrane?
It manages the transport within and outside the cell.
What is the function of the Nucleus?
o It is the main office of the cell, where DNA is found.o The nucleus contains inside of it both histones and chromosomes.o RNA synthesis occurs in the nucleolus, which is inside the Nucleus.o The nucleus controls cell division.o The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
What is the function of the Ribosomes?
o Proteins are synthesized in the Ribosomes.o Ribosomes are synthesized in the nucleolus.o Attached ribosomes are attached to an organelle like the rough ER.o Unattached ribosomes are floating in the cytoplasm.o Ribosomes floating in the cell synthesize proteins that will be used within the cell, while ribosomes that are attached to the ER synthesize proteins that will be exported outside of the cell.
What is the function of the Endoplasmic Reticulum?
o The Rough ER has ribosomes. It is responsible for packaging and transporting proteins and lipids.o The Smooth ER does not have ribosomes. It is responsible for packing and storing protein that will be exported out of the cell.
What is the function of the Golgi Apparatus?
It is responsible for modifying, packaging, and shipping proteins. Here is the process:1. The Golgi Apparatus receives the proteins from the ER.2. It modifies the protein using a process called glycosylation.3. It repackages them in vesicles.4. These packages are transported out of the cell via exocytosis.
What is the function of the Mitochondria?
o It is the powerhouse of the cell, where energy is made.o It is a sight aerobic respiration.o Mitochondrial DNA is identical in the mother as well as the offspring.
What is the function of the Cytoplasm?
It is the jell-like material surrounding the organelles. Cyclosis is the streaming movement within the cell.
What is the function of the Protoplasm?
It is the living part of the cell. Not all cells within a living organism are alive. For example, the dead cork cells of a plant do not have protoplasm.
What is the function of the Vacuole?
It is the lunch box for plant cells, where their food and water is kept.
What is the function of the Centrioles?
It is responsible for spindle organization They are found in the region of the centrosomes
What is the function of the Lysosome?
o It contains hydrolytic enzymeo An injured cell may commit “suicide” (autolysis).o It helps white blood cells destroy viruses.o It is formed in the ER and then transported to the Golgi Apparatus.o If a lysosome is trying to get rid of an organelle, it fuses with that organelle.
What is the function of the Cytoskeleton?
o It is responsible for shape and motilityo It is composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filament • Microtubules are hollow rods, made up of polymerized tubulin i.e. centrioles, cilia, and flagella • Microfilaments are solid rods of actin, myosin. It uses amoeboid movement
What is the different between plant cells and animal cells?
Plants have centrosomeso Plants have cell wallso Plants have chloroplasts
What is SIMPLE DIFFUSION?
o It is passive transport, or it does not require energyo It moves dissolved particles down concentration gradient
What is OSMOSIS?
It is simple diffusion of only watero It moves water from regions of high concentration to regions of lowconcentrations.
What is Isotonic solution?
It is the equal movement between the cell and thesurrounding
What is Hypotonic Solution?
Water will flow into the cell causing the cell toexpand and eventually lyse (burst)
What is Hypertonic Solution?
Water will flow out of the cell, thus shrinkingthe cell (plasmolysis).
What is FACILITATED DIFFUSION?
It is passive transporto It moves particles down concentration gradiento It uses special channels and carrier proteins
What is Active Transport?
It can transport proteins against concentration gradient• Symporters: moves ions• Antiporters: exchanges one ion for another• Pumps require ATP to move ions in and out.
What is ENDOCYTOSIS?
o It is the movement of particles from the outside of the cell to the inside using vesicles. When these vesicles are carrying water, it is called pinocytosis.
What is EXOCYTOSIS?
o It is the movement of particles from the inside of the cell to the outside via vesicles.
What is the Brownian Movement?
Brownian Movement is the process by which kinetic energy spreads small particles throughout the cytoplasm.
What is the Extracellular Circulation?
Diffusion is a way by which food and Oxygen is moved within the cell. Nutrient diffuses between cells that are in direct or close contact. Circulatory describes movement that extends over a large distance.
What is the Respiration Overall Equation?
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6COs + 6H2O + Energy (36 ATP)
What are the three steps of respiration?
o It has three steps: Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and Electron Transport
Where does glycolysis happen?
Occurs in the Cytoplasm
What is the net gain of ATPs of glycolysis?
Net gain of 2 ATP
Besides ATP, what are the other products produced by glycolysis?
It, also, produces: 2 NADH2 2 Pyruvate
Is glycolysis anaerobic?
It is anaerobic
What is the prep step for the Kreps Cycle?
o The pyruvate becomes 2 Acetyl COAo It produces: 2 CO2 2 NADH2
Where does the Kreps Cycle happen?
o Occurs in the Mitochondria
What are the products of the Kreps Cycle?
It produces: 4 CO2 4 NADH2 2 FADH2 2 ATP
What is the ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN?
o It is an aerobic reactiono H+ attaches ADP + P (phosphorylation) = ATP
What is the Lytic Cycle?
The virus takes control of the entire cell and produces numerous progeny. This causes the cell to rupture and consequently the virus spreads.
What is the Lysogenic Cycle?
The virus goes into the cell, acting harmless (provirus), and therefore the cell does notform resistant to further infection (super infection)
Define: allele
Alternative forms of an observable characteristic (For example, skin color would be the observable characteristic. Its alleles are the genotype that represents the dark or light skin colors.)
Define: genotype
Genetic makeup coding for a phenotype
Define: phenotype
Physical manifestation of the genotype (the phenotype is observable, while the genotype is the genetic makeup that codes for that observable trait)
Define: homozygous
Two identical alleles for the same trait (example: rr,RR)
Define: heterozygous
Two different alleles for the same trait (example: Rr)
What is the Law of Dominance?
The dominant allele is the one expressedin the phenotype
What is The one gene- onepolypeptide hypothesis?
This hypothesis states that each polypeptide makes up only one gene of the many genes that code for a protein. Previously, it was believed that each polypeptide coded for an entire protein, alsoknown as the Monocistronic Hypothesis.
What is the Monocistronic Hypothesis?
One gene is coded for by only one protein
Define: P generation
The P generation is the generation that consists of the individuals being crossed (parents)
Define: F generation
The F generation is the resulting generation from a cross
What is a progeny?
It is another name for the F generation
What is a trisomy?
Three copies of a chromosome rather than the normal two copies (example: down syndrome is caused by a trisomy of chromosome 21)
What is a monosomy?
One copy of a chromosome rather than the usual two copies
What is a monohybrid cross?
A cross, where only one trait can be studied
What is a testcross?
It is used to determine whether a phenotypicallydominant trait is homozygous or heterozygous. Both Rr and RR would produce dominant phenotypes. A testcross is used to determine whether the genotype is RR or Rr.
What is a backcross?
A cross between one individual from the F generation and one individual from the P generation
What is a punnett cross?
A method to predict the genotype of an expectedcross
What is the Law of Independent Assortment?
A law that states that genes on the same chromosome will stay together unless crossing over occur
What is a dihybrid cross?
A cross, where two traits can be studied.
Define: Incomplete Dominance
An allele is incompletely dominant if thephenotype of the heterozygous is intermediate of the homozygous phenotypes. (For example, if redwere crossed with white, the intermediate would be produced, pink.)
Define: Codominance
Codominance happens when more than one dominate allele exists and more than one of them is dominant. (For example, if red were crossed withwhite, then a striped individual would be produced since both colors are dominant.)
Define: Epistemic
A gene, which its expression is dependent onanother gene’s expression.
What is the 4 laws that Mendel came up with as the basis for genetics?
1.Genes exist in alternative forms (alleles)2. An organism has two segregated alleles from each parent for eachsomatic trait.3. Gametes cells are haploid4. Alleles are either Dominant or Recessive.
Define: Autosomes
The sex of organisms is determined by the combination of homologous sex allele i.e. XX or XY) XY= male; xx= females 22 somatic chromosomes + 2x = females 22 somatic chromosomes+ 1x +1Y = Male
How is Sickle Cell Anemia passed down?
Autosomal Codominant
How is Huntington Disease passed down?
Autosomal Dominate
How is Hemophilia passed down?
Sex linked Recessive on X (Males have no way of being a carrier)
How is Polydactylism passed down?
Autosomal Dominant
How is PKU passed down?
Recessive Autosomal gene
How is Tay Sacs passed down?
o Recessive Autosomal geneo Down Syndromeo Three copies of chromosome 21
How is Klinefelter passed down?
XXY (one extra X chromosome
How is Albinism passed down?
Autosomal Recessive
How is Tunrer Syndrome passed down?
Females with only one X rather than two
What is the Rh incompatibility?
It happens when the mother is RH- and is pregnant with a child that has RH+. This causes the mother’s blood to attack the child’s blood, thinking it is a foreign body. This usually causes more problems in the second pregnancy or later pregnancies.
Define: chromosomes
A long chain of DNA
Define: Chromatin
It is a small segment of Histones + DNA loose structures DNA during the interphase is referred to as chromatin due to its loose structure.
Define: Nucleosome
It is a long segment of chromatin. The analogy ofbeads on a string is usually used to refer tonucleosomes.
Describe the stage of interphase in mitosis
• Most cells are in the interphase stage• Cells that do not divide are always in G0 stage