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Biology Year 2 > Biology Year 2 Semester 1 > Flashcards

Biology Year 2 Semester 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

How do plants affect dissolved O2 levels in shallow urban rivers during the night and day?

A

Night - plants respire - consuming O2
Day - plants photosynthesise - producing O2

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2
Q

What is lentic water?

A

Low movement/stationary
Closed systems
Lakes, ponds and pools

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3
Q

What is lotic water?

A

Flowing water
Rivers, streams, springs
Open system
Catchment areas influence river contents
Transfers and dilutes materials/chemicals

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4
Q

Describe wetlands

A

Standing water - support aquatic plants (macrophytes), marshes, swamps and bogs
Interface of terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems

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5
Q

How do wetlands affect stream hydrology

A

Impede flow
Enhance sediment deposition

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6
Q

Wetlands; what did Horne & Goldman (1994) find?

A

Transforms inflowing nutrients into organic forms which are later released downstream as detritus

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7
Q

Describe plankton ecology? and give examples

A

Floating
Movement (current dependant)
Phytoplankton and Zooplankton

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8
Q

What is an epibenthos organism?

A

Lives at surface of the bottom of bodies of water - attached or clinging to plants

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9
Q

What is a nekton organism?

A

Swimming and able to navigate at will
eg. fish and squid

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10
Q

Describe benthos organisms (freshwater)

A
  • Live on, in, or near the bottom of freshwater bodies.
  • Includes: molluscs, worms, crustaceans, insect larvae and benthic algae.

Key roles in aquatic ecosystems
- Includes: decomposition of organic matter, nutrient cycling, and serving as food for larger predators.

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11
Q

What is neuston?

A

Group of organisms that live at the air-water interface of aquatic environments

  • including the surface film.

Resting or swimming at the surface
Eg. pond skaters and other insects, and small aquatic plants, which can either float on or just beneath the surface.

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12
Q

What is an epipelic biofilm?

A

Complex of autotrophs (algae) and heterotrophs (fungi, bacteria, microinvertebrates)

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13
Q

Estuary; what type of organisms would you expect to find in the mudflats and outflow?

A

Mudflats - epipelic biofilm
Outflow - plankton and nekton

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14
Q

What type of organisms would you expect to find in rivers and streams?

A

Benthos

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15
Q

What type of organisms would you expect to find in lakes and ponds?

A

Plankton and nekton

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16
Q

What type of organisms would you expect to find in each of these wetland types; floodplain and permanent?

A

Floodplain - plankton, nekton
Permanent - benthos

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17
Q

Describe zooplankton features and ecology

A

Aquatic
Non-motile/weak swimmers - drift with current
Communities respond to many environmental changes

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18
Q

Where are phytoplankton usually found?

A

Slow-flowing rivers
High light intensity/ temp.

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19
Q

Describe periphyton?

A

Freshwater organisms attached or clinging to plants and substrate

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20
Q

What does macrophyte mean?

A

Large plant

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21
Q

What are emergent leaves?

A

Plant is rooted and has aerial leaves
Leaves sit outside of water

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22
Q

Li, Zheng & Liu (2010) describes what?

A

Benthic macroinvertebrates
Inhabit bottom substrate
Key components of aquatic food webs
- link organic matter and nutrient resources

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23
Q

What factors affect discharge of rivers?

A

Precipitation
Catchment geology
Bed slope
Human impacts
Floods

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24
Q

What did (Allan, 1995) find when comparing stony substrate compared to silt - in terms of biodiversity?

A

Greater range of invertebrates in stonier substrate than pools rich in silt

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25
Q

What are the effects of silt deposition in water? Give citation

A

Reduces organisms’ habitation
Due to reduced water movement, reduced oxygen levels and food availability
(Allan, 1995)

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26
Q

In what cases of water flow would you find a depositional zone? Give an example

A

Low water velocity
Net deposition
Amazon River

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27
Q

In what cases of water flow would you find a erosional zone?

A

High water velocity
Net resuspension

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28
Q

How have human activities affected the hardness of water?
- metal cations and other ions cause hardness (hard water has pH >8.5).

A

Industrial Discharge: Factories and industrial plants discharge metals into water sources

  • Increasing the concentration of calcium, magnesium

Agricultural Runoff: Fertilizers in agriculture can lead to runoff.

  • Adds calcium and magnesium to water bodies

K+ (fertilisers)
Na+ (wastewater)

  • Do not contribute to water hardness (apparently).
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29
Q

What land-water interchange features reduce pH, human and natural?

A

Acid mines - rivers which drain acid mines - reduced pH
Mosses - in swamps and peaty areas contribute acidic runoff from catchment (cation exchange)

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30
Q

What effect does increased levels of discharge in rivers have on conductivity and why?

A

Decreased conductivity
Less dissolved salts and solids

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31
Q

What is allochthonous material?

A

External material
Leaves fall from deciduous trees, grasses and other terrestrial plants

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32
Q

What is autochthonous material?

A

Indigenous plant material
Eg. periphyton, plankton, macrophytes

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33
Q

Freshwater; what nutrients are generally available and which are not?

A

C,H,O generally available
N,P less common

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34
Q

What is nitrogen essential for?

A

Amino acids (proteins), nucleic acids (DNA & RNA)

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35
Q

What is phosphorus essential for?

A

Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), organelle walls (P-lipids), energy molecules (ADP,ATP,NADP)

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36
Q

Describe external loading of nitrogen in freshwater ecosystems

A

Wastewater disposal (NH4)
Fertiliser application (NO3)
Rainfall, aerial deposition, planting N-fixing crops

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37
Q

Describe external loading (allochthonous) of phosphorus in freshwater ecosystems

A

Weathering rocks
Human activity - detergent pollution

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38
Q

What is the most abundant form of nitrogen in lakes and streams?

A

Nitrate (NO3)

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39
Q

Is nitrite (partially reduced NO3) abundant in freshwater systems?

A

Present in small amounts

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40
Q

What form of nitrogen do plant cells use and in what form is it transferred?

A

Reduced N
Transferred as amino group - NH2

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41
Q

What type of organism carries out ammonification (NO2/3 -> NH3)

A

Decomposers

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42
Q

What reaction do denitrifying bacteria carry out?

A

Denitrification NO3- to N2 (atmospheric)

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43
Q

How does NO3 in lakes and streams end up in fish?

A

Uptake/photosynthesis into phytoplankton (algae)
Zooplankton
Insect larvae
Fish

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44
Q

What are human impacts on the N-cycle and name a source that discusses this?

A

Acidification
Eutrophication - Nutrient enrichment
(Erisman et al., 2013)

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45
Q

What process produces dissolved organic phosphate and P04-?

A

Decomposition

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46
Q

What are sources of phosphorus from landscape?

A

96% of PO4-P in sewage - city runoff
Agricultural Runoff
Erosion of rocks - weathering, mining

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47
Q

What happens to excess P in water systems?

A

Stored in algae - later sinks to the bottom of sediment

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48
Q

Describe internal loading of the phosphorus cycle in biota in freshwater systems

A

Macrophytes - primary producers - large P biomass
Plants transfer PO4 from sediment to water surface

Decomposition - dead organisms releases P

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49
Q

Why is Phosphorus a growth limiting factor in freshwater systems?

A
  • Low concentrations
  • P usually limits phytoplankton growth
  • No gaseous phase and rain contains little P
  • Root zone on land intercepts and retains most soluble P
  • Rock breakdown (weathering) releases little
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50
Q

What is the littoral zone (deep lake)?

A
  • Photic

Littoral community

  • Edges of water banks

Macrophytes produce energy

  • Release some into the benthic zone
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51
Q

What is the Epilimnion? (deep lake)

A

The uppermost layer in a stratified lake
- Less dense

Characterized by warmer, well-mixed water
- typically oxygen-rich and supports active aquatic life.

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52
Q

What is the Hypolimnion in a deep lake?

A

The deepest, densest, coldest layer of water in a stratified lake.

  • typically low in oxygen and unaffected by wind or solar heating.

This layer remains thermally isolated from the upper layers (epilimnion and metalimnion)
- stores nutrients and sediments.

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53
Q

What community dominates the surface biofilm of deep lakes?

A

Neuston community

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54
Q

What community dominates the epilimnion of deep lakes?

A

Phytoplankton dominated

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55
Q

What community dominates the Hypolimnion of deep lakes?

A

Bacteria dominated

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56
Q

How does the position of zooplankton change throughout a day-night cycle (deep lakes)?

A

Diel vertical migration (DMV)
Daytime - descend to the aphotic zone
Nighttime - migrate up to photic zone

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57
Q

What is the benthic zone? What functional group inhabits this area?

A

the ecological region at the lowest level of a body of water such as an ocean, lake, or stream
- heterotropic
- bacteria, protozoa

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58
Q

In what region of deep lakes do nutrients accumulate?

A

Hypolimnion

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59
Q

What is stratification of deep lakes and describe some of its features? What areas of the world does it occur?

A

Lake is stratified in different layers
Each layer has a function
Only occurs in temperate regions - not tropical
Retention of warm water at surface
Surface water circulates

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60
Q

What are the implications of lake stratification ?

A

Implications
- primary production in epilimnion - low inorganic nutrients
- no primary production in hypolimnion, high nutrient abundance

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61
Q

What does holomictic mean? - lakes

A

During annual cycle, stratification of the lake mix

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62
Q

What does meromictic mean? - lakes

A

Very deep lakes
During annual cycle there is insufficient energy to overcome stratification - does not completely mix

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63
Q

What does monomictic mean? - lakes

A

Does not freeze - long mixing period through winter

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64
Q

What does dimictic mean? - lakes

A

Lake covered with ice in the winter
Mixes twice
- Once in autumn, once in spring
Ice prevents mixing in winter

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65
Q

What does polymictic mean? - lakes

A

Shallow exposed to wind
Mixes frequently

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66
Q

What does amictic mean? - lakes

A

Always covered in ice
- no mixing

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67
Q

Describe shallow, unstratified lakes

A

All in the photic zone
Little distinction between littoral and central zone
- macrophytes in both zones
Too shallow for stratification
- turbulent mixing in summer
Benthic community - light penetration to sediment
- macrophytes (inc. algal mats)
- form autotrophic benthic community

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68
Q

Describe eutrophic lakes

A

High nutrient input - (N & P)
Shallow lowland lake
Low light penetration - cloudy water
Biota - high primary productivity - high phytoplankton biomass
Found in naturally fertile areas

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69
Q

Describe Oligotrophic lakes

A

Low nutrient N & P
Deep mountain lake
High light penetration (transparent water)
Found in infertile areas
Biota - low primary/2nd production
- Low biomass overall

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70
Q

Where does mesotrophic fit in lake nutrient status?

A

Intermediate of Eutrophic and Oligotrophic

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71
Q

Describe the example of nutrient enrichment difference in English lakes and give the citation

A

(Maberly et al., 2011)
Wastewater (name of lake) - Mountainous lake, infertile area
Deep
Low nutrient status = oligotrophic

Estwaite water (name) - Lowland lake, shallow
Source of water from surrounding cultivated land and human activity
Well developed plankton community
Nutrient rich = Eutrophic

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72
Q

Describe the seasonality of phytoplankton primary production (PP) - lakes

A

Spring Bloom- Increased PP due to increased solar radiation (heat and light)
Early summer (clear water phase) - low PP (lower than in spring)

  • due to nutrient depletion
  • increased stratification (reduced mixing from deeper waters)

Automnal - Declining PP

  • A secondary peak can occur
    if mixing resumes with cooling temperatures (redistributes nutrients)

Winter - low PP due to low light and temp.

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73
Q

What causes the clear water phase in water?

A

Bloom limited by depleted nutrients at the epilimnion
Leads to a clear water phase (consumed by zooplankton) - low algal biomass
Followed by late summer-autumn bloom

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74
Q

What conditions are phytoplankton adapted to?

A

Stratification
High temperatures
Low nutrients

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75
Q

Phytoplankton are resistant to _______

A

Grazing
Zooplankton - only eaten by rotifers and protozoa

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76
Q

How are zooplankton affected by seasonality?

A

Large peak in spring
Zooplankton consume phytoplankton - leads to clear-water phase
Low numbers in summer due to fish predation and lack of food availability
Can have second peak in autumn following phytoplankton bloom

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77
Q

Describe lake nutrient seasonality
- include lake stratification

A

Spring

  • decrease in N/P (consumed by algal blooms)

Early Summer

  • clearwater phase - release of N and P due to cell death and excretion by zooplankton

Late Summer/Autumn

  • N uptake by plants exceeds inflow
  • decreased N due to increased PP
  • input from hypolimnion limited by thermocline

Autumn

  • increased N/P due to release by phytoplankton death

Winter

  • high N&P inflow
  • due to minimal use for Primary Productivity (PP)
  • more N&P mixed up from hypolimnion
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78
Q

Describe features of rivers and streams, include the type of animals that live there

A

Photic zone throughout
Difference between littoral and central zones is small
Allochthonous > autochthonous input
Epibenthic algae; benthic macroinvertebrates; fish

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79
Q

Why are macrophytes and phytoplankton not found in rivers?

A

High water flow

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80
Q

What organisms does coarse substrate (boulders, stones) attract?

A
  • Benthic macroinvertebrates
    Predatory Plecoptera, Trichoptera and grazing Ephemeroptera
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81
Q

What are fish adaptations to running water (other organisms apply same strategy) ?

A

Streamlined
Flattened ventral surfaces

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82
Q

What do shredders consume?

A

Leaves ect.

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83
Q

What do grazers consume (rivers and lakes)?

A

Scrape microbes (biofilm) off solid surfaces

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84
Q

Large allochthonous particles - enter flowing waters - what occurs and what do they provide?

A

Colonised by bacteria and fungi
- provide essential micronutrients
- broken down by shredders

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85
Q

How and what do organic pollutants in rivers cause?

A

Increased N & P
Increased organic load > O2 supply needed by decomposer bacteria

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86
Q

Describe the effects of farm water (slurry) on freshwater:

  • Nutrients
  • Oxygen
  • Aquatic life
  • Decomposition
  • Aesthetic
A

Nutrients: Increase almost 100%
Oxygen: High Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Aquatic life: causes oxygen to be used up rapidly

  • Reduced oxygen - Trout and salmon die at low oxygen concentrations.

Decomposition: Anaerobic bacteria (decomposers) produce polluting organic material
Aesthetic: Organic material is reduced into other forms causing a foul smell, severe pollution

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87
Q

What are combined sewage overflows?

A

Collected runoff from sewage and industrial wastewater in the same system
- serve as storage tank
Prevent backflow into homes during storms
Can cause dramatic decrease in water quality

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88
Q

Describe the physical effects of sewage pollution at site of sewage release - give citation

A

(Mason, 2002)
High BOD at site of release of sewage
Oxygen levels rapidly decrease - used up by bacteria
Large amounts of suspended solids

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89
Q

Describe the chemical effects of sewage pollution at site of sewage release - give citation

A

(Mason, 2002)
NH4 spikes - smelly and toxic
- transformed into NO3 - nitrification
PO4 increase

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90
Q

Describe the microorganisms effect on sewage pollution at site of sewage release - give citation

A

(Mason, 2002)
Sewage fungus blooms - then rapidly decreases as sewage clears
Algal bloom occurs after fungal decline

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91
Q

What are preliminary treatments of wastewater?

A

Screening/removal of large objects

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92
Q

What is primary treatment of wastewater?

A

Sedimentation - suspended solids are separated as sludge (as it settles)

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93
Q

What is secondary treatments of wastewater?

A

Biological treatment
- dissolved organics are consumed in presence of microorganisms
- filter beds or activated sludge provide O2

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94
Q

What is tertiary treatment of wastewater?

A

Removal of biochemical oxygen demand, bacteria, suspended solids, nutrients
Final disinfection with UV light

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95
Q

What is nutrient stripping and why is it rarely used?

A

Removes phosphate and other nutrients
- Very expensive

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96
Q

What is done with the sludge produced from the wastewater treatment process?

A

Some sludge is used as fertiliser
- Some is incinerated
- Some is put in landfill

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97
Q

What is denitrification?

A

Conversion of NO3 to Nitrogen gas

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98
Q

What does BMWP score represent ?

A

Value given to water dwelling organisms
Highest value 100
- high score - found in clean water systems
- low - found in highly polluted areas

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99
Q

What are the limitation of BMWP score

A

Does not take organism abundance into account

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100
Q

When did agriculture begin to spread and what effect did it have?

A

12000 years ago
Increase in population size - more fire, hunting, land use, overexploitation natural resources
- creates ecological problems

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101
Q

What are examples of disruptions to earth system processes and give the citation

A

(Rockstrom et al, 2009)
Climate change
Biodiversity loss
Interference with N and P cycle
Ozone depletion
Ocean acidification

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102
Q

When was the holocene?

A

Last 10,000 years

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103
Q

When and what is the anthropocene?

A
  • the epoch of man
    Humans affecting natural cycles
    started 1800s? or 1945?
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104
Q

What are supporting ecosystem services?

A

Nutrient cycling
Soil Formation
Primary Production

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105
Q

What are provisioning ecosystem services?

A

Food
Freshwater
Wood and Fiber
Fuel

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106
Q

What are regulating ecosystem services?

A

Climate regulation
Flood regulation
Disease regulation
Water purification
Erosion regulation

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107
Q

What are cultural ecosystem services?

A

Aesthetic
Spiritual
Educational
Recreational

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108
Q

Withdrawals from rivers and lakes have _______ since 1960

A

doubled

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109
Q

___% of mangrove area has been lost in last several decades

A

35

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110
Q

__% of world coral reefs were lost and __% were degraded in the last several decades

A

20 and 20

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111
Q

Fishing, agriculture, damns, hunting. What do these human activities have in common?

A

Remove biomass
Remove energy
Alter ability of an ecosystem to cycle energy

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112
Q

What agricultural practices are more efficient (energetically, nutritionally)?

A

Plant to animal transfer
- only 10% goes toward animal biomass
Agriculture needs to shift away from livestock

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113
Q

Of all species that have gone extinct since 1500AD ___ were affected by overexploitation and agriculture - human driven

A

75

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114
Q

What effect is globalisation having on species diversity?

A

Mixing of species from previously distinct areas
Species distribution becoming more homogenous

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115
Q

What percentage of mammal, bird and amphibian species are currently threatened with extinction (medium to high certainty)?

A

10-30%

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116
Q

What is the largest factor affecting mammal, amphib and bird species today?

A

Habitat loss

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117
Q

What are two significant factors affecting amphibian species today other than habitat loss?

A

Pollution and Disease

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118
Q

Why are amphibians so vulnerable to polution?

A

Very permeable skin

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119
Q

What is an example of a forest type predicted to increase in size in the future and why?

A

Temperate forest
= conservation effort

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120
Q

What are values of conservation biology?

A

Diversity of species and communities is good
Extinction is bad
Complexity is good
Diversity has intrinsic value

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121
Q

What are direct uses of biodiversity?

A

Food
Medicine
Biological control
Recreational harvesting
Ecotourism

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122
Q

Biodiversity is not equally distributed - tropical rainforest cover 7% - what percentage of the world’s terrestrial animals and vascular plant species live there
Give citation

A

(Greyner et al. 2006)
Over half

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123
Q

What is biogeography?

A

Analyses distribution of organisms and genetic diversity across space and time of earth’s surface
- spatial distribution
- identifies factors that affect this
Ecological factors - that control distribution
Historical factors - how these patterns developed (evolution and landscape)

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124
Q

What is Wallace’s line?
- Give an example of an animal species that demonstrates this line

A

In Oceania
Geographic barrier to movement of terrestrial animal species - determined based on taxonomic relationships
Part of sea too deep and wide for animals to cross
Marsupials south east of Wallace’s line are not present on the west side
- Animals diversify in isolation
- Islands have unique terrestrial fauna

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125
Q

Species uniqueness compared to other areas of the world based on phylogenetics - which area has the most unique fauna

A

Oceania

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126
Q

Why are birds more likely to have more uniform diversity across the world?

A

Flying - movement not hindered by most geographic boundaries

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127
Q

What does endemic mean? Give an example

A

Unique to a defined geographical location
Lemurs in Madagascar

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128
Q

What does disjunct mean? - give a couple of examples

A

Distribution with gaps
Alligators (North America and China)
Araucaria pine (South America and Australasia)

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129
Q

What is N-dimensional hypervolume?

A

Intersection between all the factors that affect a species ability to survive and reproduce
- fundamental niche
- realised environmental niche
- potential niche

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130
Q

Why are tree frogs much less diverse in the temperate zone than in the tropics

A

Only a few lineages have adapted to the temperate zone
- the number of species is correlated with time since diversification in that region

Older clades have more species of a group a species have been in a area for an longer period of time

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131
Q

What are historical factors that affect geographical distributions?

A

Extinction
Dispersal
Vicariance (splitting of a taxon’s range)

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132
Q

Give examples of extinction affecting geographic distributions

A

Horse family - Equidae
- spread from North America but then became extinct there
- only zebras, Asian horses and Asian wild asses survived

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133
Q

What is an example of how organisms ability to distribute has affected populations?

A

Example - 1883 Krakatoa eruption - killed all life on island
- 50 years island was covered with forest
- through seed dispersal
Ability to disperse varies
- bats are the only mammal native to New Zealand and Hawaii - due to flight

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134
Q

What are key ecological factors in dispersal of organisms?

A

Air (wind) - air currents transport seeds, spores, small animals
- prevailing wind currents will carry organisms in certain directions
Ocean currents - seeds, plankton and larvae dispersal

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135
Q

What is vicariance and what does it lead to?

A

Splitting of a taxons range
- pops. are separated by a barrier as result of geology climate or habitat

No crossing of genes between two populations of the same species
- Leads to divergence and speciation

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136
Q

Explain the distribution of cold adapted species in Europe

A

Ice sheet formation over northern Europe 10,000 years ago
- formation split species populations
Began to retreat - retreat also split populations
- led to many disjunct populations

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137
Q

What does allochthonous and autochthonous mean in relation to taxa distribution?

A

Allochthonous - Originated elsewhere
Autochthonous - Evolved within the region

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138
Q

What two continents have good examples of allochthonous taxa?

A

North/South America
- North American Felines moving South
- other things moving North

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139
Q

Describe tropical rainforest

A

High rainfall
Low temp. variability
Maybe half the world’s species

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140
Q

Describe Monsoon forest

A

Low temp variability
Dry season/ Wet season
Mostly deciduous

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141
Q

Describe tropical dry forest

A

Long dry season
Deciduous trees dominate
Fire sensitive

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142
Q

Describe tropical and subtropical coniferous forests

A

High altitude
Lower biodiversity than other rainforests
High endemism

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143
Q

What is Latitudinal Biodiversity Gradient (LBG)?

A

the tendency for more species to occur toward the equator

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144
Q

What is the hypothesis for LBG?

A

Higher rates of speciation in the tropics (cradle hypothesis)
Less extinction in the tropics
Higher rates of speciation and lower rates of extinction in the tropics - with high species migration out of the tropics
- Last glacial maximum pushed animals away from the north pole

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145
Q

What is the Cradle hypothesis?

A

Higher rates of speciation in the Tropics
Why?
- warmer, wetter
- more biological interaction - more speciation

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146
Q

Why is there more speciation in the tropics than the temperate regions?

A

More stable climate
- climate at poles changes - would cause higher extinction rates and migration away from the poles
- explains the gradients of low species numbers nearer the poles

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147
Q

What evidence is there for the different aspects of the LBG hypothesis? Give citation

A

(Mannion et al. 2014)
Cradle hypothesis - higher origination rates of fossils in the tropics
Ark or Museum - lower extinction rates in fossils in the tropics
Out of the Tropics - trace phylogenetic roots

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148
Q

What LBG relationship was seen in the dinosaurs?

A

no relationship between diversity and latitude gradient

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149
Q

When was the Pleistocene and what was a consequence of it?

A

1.8 million years ago to 10,000 years ago
Many northern species ocurred far to the south of there present distribution due migration caused by glacial periods

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150
Q

Why are microsatellites used in Molecular Ecology?

A

High mutation rate makes them informative for detecting more recent events

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151
Q

What is mtDNA?

A

Small circular chromosome found inside mitochondria - encodes genes for energy production

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152
Q

What are the advantages of mtDNA as a tool in molecular ecology?

A

Maternally inherited
No recombination - allows direct sequencing of haplotypes
Multiple copies - easy to amplify
Higher mutation rate so more variation (information)

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153
Q

What is a disadvantage of mtDNA as a tool in molecular ecology?

A

Genetic introgression between closely related species
Example - Neanderthal human integration
- Hard to establish what came from where

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154
Q

What is a haplotype?

A

Physical grouping of genetic information along a chromosome (tend to be inherited together)

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155
Q

What are examples of invasive tissue collection methods?

A
  • Toe clipping - amphibians
  • Ear clips
  • Blood.
  • Wing punches (bats)
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156
Q

What are examples of non-invasive tissue collection methods?

A

Buccal swabs
Faecal Samples
Hair traps

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157
Q

General walk through of PCR components

A

DNA Sample
Primers
Nucleotides
Taq polymerase
Mix buffer

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158
Q

Describe the PCR cycle - temperatures and stages

A

Denature template - >90C
Anneal primers - ~55C
DNA synthesis - >65C

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159
Q

In what locations and species are biodiversity numbers often not known?

A

Tropics
Small taxa - insects

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160
Q

Why would high level cryptic species be a problem for species count and what method is used to combat this?

A

Species that are distinct but morphologically indistinguishable
Molecular tools - DNA barcoding

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161
Q

Which type of organism has the least discovered species in Southeast Asia? - Highest rate of deforestation (in world?)

A

Legumes - many will go extinct before they are discovered

162
Q

What is DNA barcoding?

A

Uses short DNA sequences
- mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase (CO1) gene (in animals)
- this gene region has sufficient mutational differences to differentiate species

163
Q

DNA barcoding - why don’t plants use the same mitochondrial region as used for animals?

A

mtDNA is far less variable in plants
- 2 chloroplast genes are used instead

164
Q

What is the difference between inter/intraspecific variation?

A
  • Intraspecific variation (“within species’’ variation), or variation among individuals of the same species.
  • Interspecific variation (“across species” variation) is variation that occurs when comparing individuals of differing species
165
Q

What are limitations of DNA barcoding? - give citation

A

(Collins and Cruickshank, 2013)
- Overlap between interspecific and intraspecific genetic variation
- Mitochondrial introgression
- Variable mutation rates
- High divergence can accumulate quickly in bottlenecked population

166
Q

What does overlap of intraspecific and interspecific variation in DNA barcoding suggest about two species?

A

Likely the same species

167
Q

Give an example of DNA barcoding in use

A

Ants in madagascar - revealed higher levels of biodiversity than standard morphological methods
Birds in philippines - Large numbers of cryptic species

168
Q

What is phylogeography?

A

The processes of dispersal of organisms that carry the genes
Phylogeography provides insights into past movements of species and how they attained their present distributions

169
Q

What effect did the glacial maximums of the Pliocene and Pleistocene have on animal distributions?

A

Temperate adapted species moved to glacial refugia (is a geographic region which made possible the survival of flora and fauna in times of ice ages)

170
Q

What do the distribution of species in northern and central Europe tell us about Glacial refugia species and their movement? - give example

A

Haplotypes in northern and central Europe - most closely related to those found in the Balkans
- Grasshopper from the Balkans
Conclusion - Many animals did not cross the mountains (pyrenees from Iberia or the Alps from Italy)

171
Q

What is a suture zone and give an example of this occurring?

A

Suture (hybrid) zone - area of mixing refugia populations of previously allopatrically separated populations
Example
- Hedgehogs - some species were able to cross the Pyrenees and Alps
- mixing separate groups

172
Q

What are some consequences of the periodic glaciations in northern latitudes?

A

Several refugia in Europe
Greater diversity genetic diversity in the South than the North
Northern biotas made up of different refugia

173
Q

What are some consequences of the periodic glaciations in the tropics?

A

Climate colder and dryer
Contracted and fragmented tropical forests

174
Q

What is the Rainforest refugia hypothesis? Give citation

A

(Haffer, 1969)
During pleistocene glacial periods rain forest was fragmented into several fragments - refugia
Allopatric fragmentation of species
- creates genetic divergence and speciation
Hypothesis has been rejected for Amazonia
- APPLICABLE for Africa and Southeast Asia

175
Q

How does the Okapi in central Africa back up the Rainforest Refugia Hypothesis?

A

Forest dependant animal
Phylogeography of the Okapi - mtDNA variation shows distinctive lineages - consistent with repeated Plio/Pleistocene forest refugia

176
Q

Pleistocene environmental changes in Southeast Asia likely affected organism distribution. Describe the differences between interglacial and glacial periods
- Sea level
- Precipitation
- Aridity
- Forest

A

During interglacial periods
- High sea levels
- High precipitation
- Decreased aridity
- Spread of tropical forest across mainland and islands

During Glacial periods
- Low sea levels
- Reduced precipitation
- Increased aridity
- Tropical forests replaced by grassland

177
Q

What is an umbrella species?

A

Large-bodied and wide ranging animals
- Require large area of suitable habitat
- Conservation of these species conserves whole ecosystems
Eg. Tiger and Pandas

178
Q

What is a sentinel/indicator species?

A

Species whose ecology and sensitivity to environmental changes are well know
Eg. Amphibians, lichen

179
Q

What are Keystone species? Give an example

A

A species that plays a disproportionately large role in supporting the ecosystem
Otters maintain kelp ecosystems by consuming sea urchins - which destroy kelp forests

180
Q

Black-tailed prairie dogs are a _____ species. What do they do?

A

Keystone
- Prey for many animals
- They burrow
- Provide habitats for plants which attracts grazers
- Provide homes for other species
The biomass they effect/provide far outweighs their own biomass

181
Q

What is an ecoregion?

A

Share large majority of species
Similar environmental conditions
Interact ecologically - critical for long-term persistence

182
Q

What are Evolutionary Significant Units ESUs?

A

Group of population with common evolutionary history
Conserving multiple ESUs maximises the conservation of evolutionary history

183
Q

What are Management Units MUs?

A

Units of a population
Results of more recent isolation
Differ in allele frequency due to lack of gene flow

184
Q

What factors did Norman Myers use to identify the 25 Biodiversity hotspots?

A

High endemism
Contain at least 0.5% endemic vascular plants
- Suggested these as conservation focus areas

185
Q

What are tropical wilderness areas?

A

High endemism and pristine - should be high priority for conservation

186
Q

What are the Global 200?

A

WWF identified 200 priority ecoregions
High biodiversity (species richness and endemism)
Conservation of these ecoregions would save most of the diversity of the Earth’s Ecosystems

187
Q

What is the “Global Deal for Nature”?

A

Advocated by Dinerstein & Olson et al (2017)
Ecoregion based approach to protect and interconnected 50% of the terrestrial realm by 2030

188
Q

What is the approach suggested by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)?

A
  • Ecosystem approach to conservation
  • Integrated management of land, water and living resources - promoting conservation and sustainable use
  • recognizes humans as integral component of ecosystems
189
Q

What % of land is moderately to highly degraded and why?

A

33%
Due to human activity

190
Q

Why is 25-40 billion tons of topsoil lost every year to erosion?

A

Largely due to land management

191
Q

What is the role of microbial biomass in the soil food web?

A

Primary consumers
- break down complex organic material
- nutrient transformation
- structural stability
- symbiotic relationships (mycorrhizal; N fixation)

192
Q

What is the mycorrhizal fungi relationship with plants?

A

Symbiosis - Mutual relationship
Fungi give nitrogen and phosphorus
Plants supply carbon

193
Q

What enzyme do microbial nitrogen fixers use to carry out their function?

A

Use nitrogenase to catalyse conversion of atmospheric N2 to ammonia (NH4)

194
Q

Describe nematodes
- What order

A

Microfauna
Soil fauna - secondary and higher order consumers

195
Q

What are soil dwelling protozoa (protists)? Describe their movement and functional groups.

A

Microfauna
Single celled eukaryotes
Soil movement via soil solution
- movement restricted by pore size
Photoautotrophs - primary producers (algae)
Heterotrophs (protozoa) - feed on bacteria and fungi

196
Q

What are mesofauna of soil?

A

Enchytraeid worms
Microarthropods (mites/collembolans)
- most fungal feeders

197
Q

What mesofauna dominates acidic peat soils and in what forest/zones are they a keystone species ?

A

Enchytraeid worms
- keystone species of boreal and tundra zone

198
Q

What type of soil fauna are earthworms considered to be and what are they sensitive to?

A

Macrofauna
Intolerant to acidity - replaced by enchytraeid worms

199
Q

What abiotic factors affect the distribution of soil organisms?

A

Soil porosity - pore sizes
- determine movement of water and biota
Soil water
- water films represent habitat
Soil temperature
- rate enzyme reaction
- temp. tolerances
Soil pH
- pH tolerances vary greatly

200
Q

What is the rhizosphere effect?

A

Microorganisms more abundant around roots
- Roots provide compounds (rhizodeposition - amino acids and sugars) which microorganisms feed on
- stimulates microbial abundance and their predators

201
Q

What limits microbes in a rhizosphere?

A

Carbon

202
Q

Describe the relationship of deciduous forest and its soil

A

Deciduous forest
- High litter Nitrogen
- Low lignin and phenolics
Fertile neutral pH soils
- high abundance of bacteria and bacterial-feeding predators and earthworms
High rate of decomposition (nutrient turnover)

203
Q

Describe the relationship of coniferous forest and its soil
- Litter
- Nutrients
- Soil
- Organisms
- Decomposition Rate

A

Low litter N
High phenolics
Infertile acidic soils - absence of earthworms
High abundance of enchytraeids
Slow decomposition (low nutrient turnover)

204
Q

Is there faster nutrient cycling inside or outside area of tree influence?

A

Outside
- Inorganic nutrients - high NO3
- High bacterial biomass

Inside sphere
Organic nutrients
- High fungal biomass
- Low microbial biomass

205
Q

Give the citation and describe the effects of intensive agriculture on soil biodiversity

A

(Tsiafouli et al., 2015)
Gradient of soil management intensity
- intensive agriculture affects soil quality and nutrient levels
- higher intensity lower soil quality
- higher intensity lower biodiversity

206
Q

What is the relationship between aridity/temp. and microbial diversity found by Maestre et al (2015)?

A

Dryer warmer ecosystems - less diversity
- dryland expected to keep increasing in size

207
Q

What did Finlay (2002) find about microbial species distribution?

A

As they are so small there is no limit to their distribution - move with wind, bugs and plant material
Distribution in the field mirrors the distribution around the world
As their dispersal is not limiting

208
Q

What did Finlay (2002) find about microbial species distribution?

A

As they are so small there is no limit to their distribution - move with wind, bugs and plant material
Distribution in the field mirrors the distribution around the world
As their dispersal is not limiting

209
Q

Why does the trend in soil animal diversity not match the trend in microbial soil diversity?

A

Animals inability to disperse as efficiently

210
Q

How much have humans increased species extinction rates?

A

1000 times over background rates
10-30% of mammal, bird and amphibian species are threatened with extinction

211
Q

What did (Cardinale et al., 2012) find about diversity and ecosystem productivity?

A

More diverse communities - more productive ecosystems

212
Q

What is causing the decline of soil diversity (soil families)?

A

Overcultivation and construction

213
Q

What is the top threat to soil diversity and soil biota biodiversity?

A

Intensive agriculture

214
Q

What were key finding of (Tsiafouli et al. 2015) - soil and land usage

A

Increasing land use intensity decreases diversity within soil functional groups and avg. no. of trophic levels
Reduction of diversity decrease biomass of macrofauna
Some cases functional groups entirely missing - slow to recover

215
Q

What is the redundancy hypothesis?

A

High level functional redundancy within communities (niche overlap)
As long as biomass and main trophic groups maintained
- So many species that losing some doesn’t matter as another species will fill the niche
Studies have backed this up (very artificial)
- Did show if there was to much loss then the system will eventually collapse

216
Q

What is the rivot hypothesis?

A

All species have a role (linear)
- Linear relationship between diversity and function
- If to many species of lost eventually the ecosystem will crash

217
Q

What is the idiosyncratic hypothesis?

A

High functional redundancy, some species more redundant than others
- Keystone species - certain species (usually larger as there is less niche overlap) are more important to the ecosystem - if lost the ecosystem could crash

218
Q

What is an engineer species?

A

Influence ecosystem process through physical disturbance
Eg. moles & earthworms burrowing holes
- used by other organisms and water
- shape environment

219
Q

What is the insurance hypothesis?

A

Diverse communities are more likely to contain species that can withstand environmental change

220
Q

What were the effects found by a study creating a soil biodiversity gradient - using finer and finer sieves to decrease numbers of AM fungi species?

A

Finer sieves
Nutrient cycling reduced
Phosphorus leaching increased (loss of phosphorus)
- Negative effects of reduced biodiversity
Species loss does affect soil function

221
Q

What grade will hoop get on his ecology exam?

A

Probably zero - gonna be late

222
Q

Experiments carried out in the field on microbial diversity in soil
- Showed a steep decline in functionality when to many species were lost
What hypothesis does it support?

A

Rivot hypothesis

223
Q

Describe capture-mark-recapture (CMR)

A

Several sampling sessions
Record each time an a individual is caught - determine new individuals at each time point

224
Q

Define biogeography

A

The distribution of organisms (and genetic diversity) across the surface of the earth in space (and time)

225
Q

What are the 2 main considerations in conservation?

A

Where to put the protected area?
Will the diversity be maintained?
- will its function be maintained? (Water/nutrient cycling)

226
Q

Island Biogeography - Describe the relationship between species no. and distance from mainland

A

Number of species decreases with distance from mainland (-linear)

227
Q

Island Biogeography - Describe the relationship between species no. and island area

A

No. of species increases as size of island increases (linear)

228
Q

Target effect. How might island size affect colonization rates?

A

Larger islands - higher colonization rate
- larger target
- more seeds arrive

229
Q

Rescue effect. How might island nearness to mainland affect extinction rates?

A

Decreased extinction rates
Rescue - population replenished from mainland
- New genetic diversity
- New individuals

230
Q

Describe some feature of a well designed reserve

A

Large
Intact rather than fragmented
Several rather than few (more protected from disease and natural disaster)
Connected reserves (wildlife bridges)
Diverse ecosystems
Fully protected - eg. with a river if dumping is occurring upstream - defeats purpose
Round better than thin - edge effects

231
Q

Describe species-area relationships to extinction in reserves

A

Extinction rates decrease with increasing protected area

232
Q

Why are larger protected areas beneficial to survival rates of an animals in these areas?

A

Fewer ‘edge effects’
Larger populations supported
More species
Larger species less likely to go extinct in larger reserves
Wider range of habitats
Less susceptible to natural or anthropogenic disturbance

233
Q

Why is larger size of reserve beneficial to survival rates in protected areas?

A

Fewer ‘edge effects’
Larger populations supported
Larger species less likely to go extinct in larger reserves
Wider range of habitats
Less susceptible to natural or anthropogenic disturbance

234
Q

Describe the edge effect - features of the periphery area?
Give citation for edge effects

A

(Broadbent et al., 2008)
Lower habitat quality
Invasions of exotic edge species
Different microclimate
Avoidance by ‘interior’ species
Larger reserves have more core habitat - pieRsquared

235
Q

Why is it important to have multiple reserves?

A

Environmental catastrophes - human and environment
Don’t want eggs all in one basket silly

236
Q

Describe the SLOSS debate

A

Single Large Or Several Small
Edge effects - single better
Catastrophic events - several better (eg. more likely to avoid spread of fire to all areas)
Ease of movement between reserves - harder movement between reserves is
- the stronger the argument for single reserves is

237
Q

Describe buffer zones around protected areas

A

Low-impact buffer zones around protected areas such as multi-use zone (human and wild) or farmland rather than cities

238
Q

Consideration when designing the matrix (connections between reserves)?

A

Can the species move through it
How safe is the matrix - eg. roads, cars?

239
Q

What is a meta-population?

A

Individuals in separate reserves moving between one another - managed as one

240
Q

What are the benefits of habitat corridors

A

Mitigate effects of habitat fragmentation
- Increased recolonisation potential
- Increased gene flow
- Providing additional habitat
- Increased individual survival

241
Q

Why is creating habitat corridors difficult?

A

Animals are unlikely to listen to us if we plant trees up or put a fence up
- They don’t understand us
Behaviours are difficult to change - migration/movement patterns
- even when an obstacle has been removed - animals often continue to ‘ghost gaps’ (where fence used to be)

242
Q

Do protected areas work?

A

More money more ability to protect - enforcement, boundary demarcation
- Generally successful at stopping land clearing
- Also reduce logging, hunting, fire and grazing

243
Q

Describe Conservation by the Exclusion of People

A

Restricted access to protected areas
In the tropics - colonial and post-colonial governments removed people from areas they inhabited to protect the areas
Often infringed on right of local people

Although in many cases it has had a positive effect on biodiversity - reducing deforestation

Now moving toward community based conservation - involving local people

244
Q

What is the ‘noble savage’?

A

Conversation of returning indigenous land rights
Assumption that natives would not negatively affect the environment as they are one with nature (primitive) - racist

245
Q

Enforcement vs provision of livelihoods as poaching prevention methods

A

Law enforcement - social cost
Shoot to kill policies - controversial
Providing economic incentives and employing local people as wardens - more effective (some proof)

246
Q

What is a gap species?

A

Species whose range falls outside protected areas

247
Q

What is the conservation challenge with migratory species?

A

May not be protected in some parts of their range
Difficult coordinating conservation efforts between countries

248
Q

What is are some methods to help coexistence between wildlife and humans?

A

Shock collars on predators
Guard dogs
Support bee populations near crops

249
Q

What is the tipping point in human-modified landscapes for forest biodiversity conservation?

A

Delivery of goods and services from forest hits optimal at moderately managed landscape
- Eventually there’s no more goodness that can be gotten out without significant damage to the forest
- Forest loss, high intensity agriculture, human settlement
- Begin decreasing these services

250
Q

Designing optimal human-modified landscapes - when does it stop being beneficial to protect an area further in relation to species richness and biodiversity

A
  • Optimal preservation of forests - stops benefitting species richness after a while
  • Benefits of further protection become less valuable to supporting biodiversity
  • Eventually there’s no more goodness that can be gotten out
251
Q

Describe the site of exchange of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plants

A

AM fungi have highly branched arbuscule (site of exchange) within root cortical cells (penetrate plant root)

252
Q

Which do AM fungi benefit more; dominant species (grasses) or sub-dominant (herbs) in a community with both?

A

Sub-dominant
- decrease dominant in a community that includes sub-dominant species

253
Q

What mechanisms of AM fungi are thought to cause the differences in the interactions between dominant and sub-dominant plant species (such as herbs)?

A

C donor hypothesis - Am hyphal networks interconnect species carbon and nutrient supplies between herb species
- stronger together typa thing
Increase survivorship of sown herbs
Increase establishment of herbs

254
Q

What was the relationship found between AM fungal diversity and plant biomass (PP) found in Mesocosm experiments?

A

Higher Am fungi diversity
- Higher plant biomass (plant productivity)

255
Q

What were the conclusions made from the mesocosm experiments? What does greater abundance of fungi and longer hyphal growth produce?

A

Different hyphal growth forms and lengths
More efficient soil phosphorus exploitation
More plant biomass and diversity
AM FUNGAL DIVERSITY PROMOTES ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING

256
Q

Explain the development of Marram grass and root pathogens

A

Sand dunes
- Marram grass dominates youngest dunes
- Begins to degenerate quickly declines
- Replaced by other plant species
- Caused by plant specific pathogens (builds up in the dunes)
- Parasitic nematodes and soil-borne fungi
- After death other plants are able to live without the effects of the plant pathogen

257
Q

Why is crop rotation used?

A

Build up host specific parasites/parasites
AS IT grows it accumulated pathogens that lead to its demise
Over multiple seasons of crop planting pathogen levels become very high

258
Q

Explain the mechanism for why rare plants are rare?

A

Rare plants - exhibit negative feedback limiting their growth and spread
- accumulate plant specific pathogens - limit growth
- grow better in soil of other plants

259
Q

What is the hypothesis for why highly invasive plants are highly invasive?

A

Accumulate pathogens slowly
Display positive feedback
- modify soil biota in a way that promotes their growth

260
Q

Describe Rhinanthus minor

A

Facultative root hemiparasite plant
- attaches to roots of fast growing plants as prefered host
- extracts nutrients from host
- allows survival in low nutrient environments
- reducing their competitive dominance of fast growing plants
- reduces field fertility

261
Q

What is the mechanism of R. minor in soil?

A

Infects dominant plant roots
Causes root death and increased leakage of carbon into soil - stimulates microbes
Enhanced N cycling and plant N supply
Parasite driven enhancement of microbial N cycling in soil

262
Q

How do infertile forest soils (N limited) sustain high levels of tree productivity? - little inorganic Nitrogen

A
263
Q

How do pine trees control soil N availability to benefit their growth and competitive ability in N limited ecosystems ?

A

Polyphenol (tannic acid - tannins) - production from pine litter
- inhibits N mineralisation and availability inorganic N
Pine litter decomposition release amino acids, peptides and proteins (DON)
- microorganisms break these down further
- trees use them through mycorrhizal fungi
CONFERS COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE

264
Q

What is a key limiting factor in infertile forest soils?

A

N-limited
Microbial mineralisation of organic nitrogen to plant available inorganic nitrogen (nitrate to ammonium)
- control on plant N supply

265
Q

What is the trend of inorganic N in infertile forest soil with increasing DON

A

Decreasing inorganic N (ammonium, nitrate)

266
Q

How can slow-growing, phenolic rich herb (Acomastylis) and fast-growing grass coexist in alpine meadows?
- usually fast growing outcompetes slow growing

A

Phenolic rich litter produced by herb
Reduced microbial uptake of N and N availability
Reduced growth of fast growing dominant grasses
ACOMASTYLIS modifies environment to enhance its persistence

267
Q

Why is there a varying range of plant biomass consumption rates across ecosystems?

A

Wide variation due to plant structures
- Herbivores struggle to eat wood

268
Q

What are the negative impacts of herbivores on soil biota and ecosystems?

A

Selective grazing and reduced quality of litter inputs
- select favoured plant species
- leads to dominance of species they find undesirable (often with reduced litter quality)

269
Q

What are the positive impacts of herbivores on soil biota and ecosystems?

A

Retardation of succession and faecal return (short-cut litter decomposition)

270
Q

What herbivore behaviour causes deceleration and how?

A

Selective grazing at low densities favours defended, low tissue N plants (low fertility forests)
- Low grazing pressure
- Plant production is not consumed by herbivores
- Herbivores consume non-defended plants
- High tannin polyphenol litter increases
- Nutrient availability is reduced
- Negative feedback that slows nutrient cycling
- Low soil nutrients favour growth of slow growing conifer trees - negative feedback loop

271
Q

What herbivore behaviour causes acceleration and how?

A

Positive feedback loop in fertile sites
- herbivores favour tolerant plants - high tissue N
- high soil fertility and consumption of NPP
High grazing densities
- graze tolerant plants become dominant
- nitrogen rich tissue
- stimulate nutrient cycling
- increased herbivore support

272
Q

What occurred on Isle Royle in lake superior when the moose was reintroduced?

A

Browse in boreal forest
- selective grazing on hardwood led to dominance of conifers
- reduced tree production
- produced litter high in polyphenols (tannins) low N
- reduced microbial activity and N mineralization
- ecosystem productivity reduced
Carry capacity reduces
- Moose population collapses

273
Q

What are the effects of red deer browsing? - why they are culled in scotland

A

Reduced tree regeneration
Decreased N mineralization
- 4 fold decrease in grazed compared to ungrazed

274
Q

How do red deer (grazers) reduce ecosystem functioning?

A

Tree growth increase biological activity
- grazers suppress trees
- reduced ecosystem productivity

275
Q

Describe the effects of sheep grazing in fertile temperate grasslands - what is the mechanism?

A

Increased microbial biomass
Increased N mineralization
Increased plant N
Increased NPP

Dung shortcuts litter decomposition
Stimulates biological activity

276
Q

Describe the effect of grazers in the Serengeti and what is the reason for this behaviour?

A

Grazers preferentially forage mineral rich plants (higher nutrient availability)
- beneficial for late stage pregnancy, lactation and offspring growth
- animal activities augment nutrient availability

277
Q

Serengeti; What were the effects on annual net N mineralization and Soil Na stocks (reproduction) when grazers were concentrated in an area? -what does this cause

A

Increased
- grazed plants had increased transpiration
- Causes Na accumulation in surface soil
- increased biological activity
- increased carrying capacity
African grazers modify ecosystem processes to increase nutrient availability - increasing carrying capacity

278
Q

Describe the disturbance effects of grizzly bear in alpine meadows

A

Grizzly bears forage by digging for bulbs
Digging - increased nutrient content and seed production of glacial lilies

These digs cause more inorganic N to be present in the soil
Lily bulbs have higher levels of N and carbohydrate content
- provide better food source to the bear

279
Q

Why is overgrazing such a problem?

A

Overwhelm natural processes
- less productivity
- grassland degradation
- millions of people rely directly on grassland productivity (especially affected in developing countries)

280
Q

What is the global on-farm cost of grassland degradation?

A

$6.8 Billion

281
Q

Why are grasslands resistant to grazers?

A

Grow from the base up
- Grazing does not kill the grass
Co-evolved

282
Q

Why does grassland biodiversity not increase with area increase (unlike tropical rainforests)?

A

Relatively uniform

283
Q

What is behavioral ecology?

A

Study behaviour and how it allows animals to adapt to their environment

284
Q

What are Tinbergen’s Why’s?
Example - Why do starlings sing in the spring?

A

Survival value or function - Attract mates
Causation - (physiology) increasing day length has altered hormone levels; (anatomy) air flowing through syrinx
Developmental - the starlings have learnt their songs from their neighbours
Evolutionary History - certain songs are more successful - increasing reproductive success - natural selection

285
Q

How did altruism evolve even though it would seem to reduce an individual’s fitness?

A

Selfish behaviours should be more common
But some altruistic behaviours have personal benefits in social context
Kin selection
- Brothers/sisters share genes with your kin
- Traits that protect kin improve inclusive fitness and so can be selected for
Reciprocal altruism
- food sharing - in time of need individuals return the favour

286
Q

Give an example of social animals relying on kin selection to increase inclusive fitness?

A

Bees dying when they sting
- Protecting offspring increases their inclusive fitness even if they die

287
Q

Give the example of selfish behaviour shown by the male Hanuman langurs and why it occurs?

A

Infanticide
- Acts aggressively toward the young of another male (may kill them)
- Reduces time for female to become fertile
- as infants rely on mothers food (milk)
- male may father their own offspring sooner

288
Q

What is hamilton’s rule? Describe what each term means

A

Closer the relationship between kin the more beneficial and so more likely the altruistic act is
rB > C
- r is the genetic relatedness to the actor
- B is the reproductive benefit gained by recipient
- C is the reproductive cost to the actor

289
Q

Describe how the bright stripes of the Datana caterpillars which advertise their bad taste are an example of kin selection.

A

All larvae in a group are likely to be related (from one egg mass)
- death of one caterpillar teaches the predator to avoid the pattern
- Protecting the caterpillars close kin

290
Q

What is alarm calling an example of?

A

Altruistic behaviour
- Warns others of predators
- usually closely related individuals
- Draws attention to itself

291
Q

When is reciprocal altruism possible and give an example of an animal that does this

A

Social groups where animals can remember an individual that did a good deed in the past
- And there is an opportunity to return the favour
Female vampire bats will regurgitate food to unrelated female if needed
- Helps them survive
- Dramatically increases time until female bat will starve to death but does not decreases the time the donor has until starvation that much

292
Q

What are the costs of group living?

A

Competition for resources within group (space, food, mates)
Increased levels of disease and parasites
Higher visibility to predators

293
Q

What are the benefits of group living?

A

Territory defence so better access to resources between groups
Anti-predator strategies; defence, vigilance, dilution effects
Cooperation and food sharing
Shared parenting (Alloparenting)
Information sharing

294
Q

What is alloparenting?

A

Parenting carried out by individuals not directly related to children

295
Q

What are benefits of being centre of the herd and what is this theory called? And what are the benefits of being on the outskirts?

A

Centre (Selfish Herd) - better protection
Outskirts - better access to food

296
Q

The optimal group size for killer whale hunting is 3, why is the stable group size 5?

A

In groups of 5, the payoff to the group is still larger than when hunting solo even though it is far less than when hunting in groups of 3
- leaving the group would have a negative impact on the individuals fitness
- although at 6 killer whales the benefit of group hunting drops below the payoff of hunting solo

297
Q

Describe what (Zach, 1979) found when studying crows feeding on whelks

A

Choose larger individuals - break more easily
Fly 5m up and drop them to break their shells
Why this height? - most energetically efficient, reduces the chance of need of repeats while also not needed to fly to high
- cost of flying needs to be outweighed by the benefits of the food

298
Q

What is the leaf cutter ant strategy to avoid parasitoid wasps?

A

Larger individuals forage at night to avoid the wasps as they can only parasitise ants of a certain size

299
Q

Give the citation for the Hawks and Doves theory for territory defence?

A

Maynard Smith (1976, 1982)

300
Q

What is the strategy of the Bourgeois in the Hawk Dove Bourgeouis model?

A

Acts as a hawk if they are defending territory and a dove if they are intruding

301
Q

Why is the Bourgeois the only evolutionarily stable strategy in the Hawk Dove Bourgeois model?

A

Cannot be invaded by others
- Would find itself in control of territory half the time
Mean payoff is stable

302
Q

Why are the sex ratios almost 1:1 even though generally not as many males are needed in a population? and who found this?

A

(Fisher, 1930)
This is an evolutionarily stable strategy
If a population has more females than males then it is beneficial to have more males until the population drops back to 1:1
Sorry these make no sense to me either not really sure why i bothered making these game theory flashcards complete waffle

303
Q

What are the four different mating strategies?

A

Polygyny - multiple females per male
Promiscuity
Monogamy
Polyandry - multiple males per female

304
Q

Describe potential reasons for promiscuous mating and give an example

A

Chimpanzees and bonobos
Sometimes occurs when the risk of not finding a mate is high
Could be linked to social cohesion and complex interaction but promiscuity is very uncommon in primates

305
Q

Why is sex in promiscuous primates thought not to be purely for reproduction?

A

Mating - not only for reproduction
Often male - male
or female - female
Can even be close family so definitely not for reproduction

306
Q

Describe the potential reasons for monogamous mating?

A

May be related to mate guarding - in males interest to guarantee the offspring are his
Male-assistance monogamy hypothesis
Female-enforced monogamy hypothesis

307
Q

Describe monogamous mating

A

Individuals mate exclusively over at least one breeding season

308
Q

What is the male-assistance monogamy hypothesis?

A

Monogamy is prefered when male help at the nest has a large impact on offspring survivorship
- Most common explanation in birds

309
Q

What is the female-enforced monogamy hypothesis?

A

Female’s interest to ensure male assistance and that she will enforce it

310
Q

Why is monogamy rare in mammals?

A

In terms of fitness it is strongly in the males interest to mate with as many females as possible and to defend them

311
Q

What is resource based polygyny and give an example

A

Occurs when there is a resource that a male can dominate
Lark bunting nests in grassland where shade is key to nesting survival
- Male territory is shaded area
- Has control over multiple females

312
Q

What is a harem mating structure and how long are males dominant for?

A

Occur when a male defends a group of females without a specific territory
Common in social animals where females naturally group together
Short periods of time males are dominant for
- many males are never dominant

313
Q

What mating structure is commonly linked to infanticide?

A

Harem mating structure (polygynous)

314
Q

What is communal courting (leks) and what is it an example of?

A

2 or more males perform elaborate courtship displays and females choose the best - gene shopping
- Runaway sexual selection

315
Q

Jacanas (tropical bird) has a polyandrous mating system, why?

A

Egg predation is common
- Males build nests (will continue to defend)
- Females compete to lay eggs in multiple nest

316
Q

What are examples of polyandrous mating animals?

A

Jacanas (tropical bird)
Kalahari meerkats (fight for rank)
Spotted hyenas (fight for rank)

317
Q

What is intersexual selection?

A

One sex (usually females) chooses mates based on an attractive feature

318
Q

What is intrasexual selection?

A

Members of one sex (usually males) compete over partners with the winner performing most of the matings

319
Q

What are nuptial gifts and what type of sexual selection is it an example of?

A

May help female fitness directly, or may indicate male fitness
Intersexual selection

320
Q

What is runaway sexual selection?

A

Some ornamentation is very impractical
- but is selected for as it is favoured by females (or mate not doing display)

321
Q

What are adaptations created by intrasexual selection and why?

A

For fighting
- Large body size
- Weaponry (horns, canines)

322
Q

Why are honest displays of strength before battle key in intrasexual selection?

A

Only worth fighting if individuals are relatively similar and the result isn’t inevitable

323
Q

What are examples of sexual dimorphism in primates?

A

Male:female body size
Male:female relative canine size

324
Q

In what type of relationship is relative testis size largest?

A

Promiscuous - Multiple males mating with each female
bigger balls = higher fitness

325
Q

In what type of relationship is relative testis size smallest?

A

Polygyny
- no need for big balls
- no competition during reproduction

326
Q

Which type of relationship has the smallest male:female body size dimorphism and canine dimorphism?

A

Monogamous
- Not continually competing with other males

327
Q

Describe what age distribution you’d expect to find in an undisturbed forest compared to an overgrazed forest and why?

A

Undisturbed
- More younger trees
- Outcompete older trees
Overgrazed
- Distribution leaning toward older trees
- Overgrazing reduces abundance of young trees

328
Q

What is survivorship = ?

A

Survivorship = number surviving this year / total number born

329
Q

Age-specific mortality =

A

Age-specific mortality = number dying / number dying
Oops done something wrong here

330
Q

What is a type 1 survivorship curve?

A

Low death rate at birth
Increases dramatically later in life
Eg. humans

331
Q

What is a type 2 survivorship curve?

A

Linear increase in death rate
Eg. seeds in a seed bank

332
Q

What is a type 3 survivorship curve?

A

High mortality rate at birth
- once developed mortality rate decreases dramatically

333
Q

Describe the general features of a type 1 organism?

A

Few offspring - invest a lot into them
- parental care as individual offspring are valuable

334
Q

Describe the general features of a type 3 organism? and give an example

A

Large number of offspring
- little investment
Eg. plants (lots of small seeds and few germinate)

335
Q

What are the survivorship curves seen in ungrazed and grazed grass?

A

Ungrazed - type 1
Grazed - Initial die off due to preferential grazing of younger grasses and then development into type 1 curve

336
Q

What is an organism’s life history?

A

Describes timing of key activities
- Age of death
- Age of maturity
- Interbirth interval
- Generation time
Also include population metrics - litter size

337
Q

What would likely cause a geometric growth pattern in a population?

A

Seasonal breeders - reintroduction (into empty niche) of a population into a habitat

338
Q

What population growth curve would you expect to find from a reintroduced continually breeding population?

A

Exponential growth curve
- If resources were unlimited it could go on indefinitely

339
Q

How do humans manipulate the carrying capacity of certain species in farming?

A

Pesticides and fertilizers increase K - Carry capacity

340
Q

What type of animal is most affected by space limitation?

A

Small mammals and birds (nesting)

341
Q

What type of animal is most affected by predators, parasites and disease?

A

Insects

342
Q

What type of animal is most affected by food availability?

A

Large mammals
Although also has large effect on small mammals, insects and birds

343
Q

What are some density dependant factors that affect population growth?

A

Limited space/overcrowding
Limited food supply
Predators
Parasites and disease

344
Q

Why is there sometimes a lag in the time for density dependant limiters on population to set in?

A

Rates of disease, parasitism and predation lag behind population growth

345
Q

What pattern does a K-limiter produce in animal density (population size)?

A

Causes oscillation
- When the lag catches up it causes the population to crash
- the population then recovers and the cycle repeats

346
Q

What is the trend in animal population density for non lagging k-limiting factors?

A

No oscillations - straight line

347
Q

How can lagging K-limiters cause extinction?

A

If the crash is to large the population can be wiped out

348
Q

What is semelparity? Give an example

A

Breeds once in its lifetime then die
Salmon

349
Q

Give an example of an iteroparous -seasonal breeder

A

Birds

350
Q

What is an iteroparous species?
Give an example

A

Breed whenever (all year) or seasonal
- multiple in a lifetime
Chimpanzees - all year round

351
Q

What is an R-selected species

A

High growth rate per capita

352
Q

What is a k-selected species?

A

Stable populations that exist close to the carrying capacity

353
Q

Describe features of an r-selected species

Development -
Reproductive rate -
reproductive age -
Body size -
Lifespan -
Competitive ability -
Survivorship curve -
Population size -
Dispersal -
Habitat type -

A

Development - rapid
Reproductive rate - high
reproductive age - early
Body size - small
Lifespan - short
Competitive ability - low
Survivorship - Type 3
Population size - variable
Dispersal - good
Habitat type - disturbed

354
Q

Give examples of r-selected species

A

Weedy plants, small fish, insects, bacteria

355
Q

Give examples of k-selected species

A

Canopy trees, large mammals

356
Q

Describe features of an k-selected species

Development -
Reproductive rate -
reproductive age -
Body size -
Lifespan -
Competitive ability -
Survivorship -
Population size -
Dispersal -
Habitat type -

A

Development - slow
Reproductive rate - low
Reproductive age - late
Body size - large
Lifespan - long
Competitive ability - high
Survivorship - Type 1
Population size - fairly constant
Dispersal - poor
Habitat type - not disturbed

357
Q

What proxy can be used to measure age of elephants?

A

height
- measured with laser range finding

358
Q

What are the four potential consequences of the Lokta-Volterra competition equations? Competition between 2 species

A

Species 1 eliminated
Species 2 eliminated
Either is eliminated
Co-existence

359
Q

How does coexistence occur rather than competitive exclusion?
Give the 5 species of wabler as an example

A

Niche differentiation - resource partitioning
With competitive exclusion there should only be one species
- each wabler species prefers to feed at a different height and portion of the tree
- reducing competition

360
Q

Why does evolution removes niche overlap?

A

Less competition for resources
- increase individual fitness
Species pushed to exploit resources at the edge of their niche
Leads to adaptation - character displacement

361
Q

What are some predation defences?

A

Chemical and aposematic colouration
Cryptic colouration
Batesian mimicry - palatable
Mullerian mimicry - unpalatable
Physical defences
Intimidation displays
Predator satiation

362
Q

What is aposematic colouration and give an example

A

Colour advertises poisonous nature
Blue poison arrow frog

363
Q

What is cryptic colouration? Example

A

Camouflage
- Indian leaf butterfly - disguised as leaf

364
Q

What is Batesian Mimicry?

A

Non-poisonous animal mimics poisonous animal to scare predators

365
Q

What is Mullerian mimicry?

A

Toxic animals (prey) mimicking each other

366
Q

Why do zebras have stripes?

A

Moving stripes may dazzle predators - dazzle predators when moving - hard to single out individual from herd
Social - Stripe patterns are individual so they may be used to identify
Fitness indication for mate identification - irregularities may indicate disease, injury
Thermoregulation
Protection from tsetse flies - flies seem least attracted to striped horses

366
Q

Why are rare species more likely to go extinct?

A

Rare species - small disturbances can cause extinction due to low numbers

367
Q

Why are species with poor dispersal ability more likely to go extinct?

A

Poor dispersal ability - inability to reach new areas - if habitat is destroyed they will likely die with it

368
Q

Why are species with high degree of specialisation more likely to go extinct?

A

High specialization - species that rely on one food source are vulnerable if that becomes rare

369
Q

Why are species with high population variability more likely to go extinct?

A

Population variability - sudden decline can lead to extinction

370
Q

Why are species with high trophic status more likely to go extinct?

A

Top carnivores are small in number - prone to extinction

371
Q

Why are species with short life span more likely to go extinct?

A

Few years of unfavourable conditions can prevent breeding for a whole lifespan and cause extinction

372
Q

Why are species with low reproductive ability more likely to go extinct?

A

Blue whales breed slowly
- and so recover slowly from population declines

373
Q

What is the most endangered class and why?

A

Amphibia
Chytrid disease - fungal

374
Q

What are some dispersal pathways?

A
  • corridors, sweepstakes, filter routes
375
Q

Range expansion - organisms can move into a favourable habitat or _______ dispersal over unfavourable habitat

A

Jump

376
Q

What factors are affecting soil quality and what are they causing in the soil?

A

Overgrazing
Over-irrigation

leading to
Nutrient exhaustion
Salt build-up

377
Q

How important is plant-derived C to mycorrhizal fungi?

A

Obligate biotrophs.
Growth of fungi increases when plants exposed to light
Growth of fungi increases when root associated

378
Q

How important is the diversity of AM fungi for plant nutrient uptake?

A

Very important - different AM fungi have different ability to take up nutrients at different distances
- Higher diversity higher uptake

379
Q

What are some dispersion drivers?

A

Density - competition for resources (space, food, mates)
Invasion - New organism to ecosystem

380
Q

What is Conservation Biological Control? Give an example

A

Conservation Biological Control
- Increase density of native predators
- e.g. reduction of aphids by encouraging ladybirds and other predators by planting suitable habitats

381
Q

What is Importation Biological Control?

A

Import a known natural enemy from another geographical area

382
Q

What is a good pollution indicator for air quality?

A

Lichen

383
Q

What is a good indicator of water sewage pollution?

A

Benthic invertebrates

384
Q

What are problems with pesticide pollution?

A

Non-specific toxicity - can kill pest and natural predators
Bioaccumulation - accumulation in food chain (especially predators)

385
Q

Describe the Plant-aphid-wasp-mycorrhizal interaction

A

When plants are attacked by aphids
- Produce VOCs that repel aphids and attract their enemies
- Parasitoid wasps
Signalling compounds produced by plants in response to aphid attack transferred via common mycorrhizal networks

386
Q

Describe an experiment to show how plant carbon is key to soil respiration

A
  • Girdle trees - remove a section of bark all the way round a tree
  • At different times in the year - calculate soil respiration for the different areas
  • Evidence shows that the difference was due to the mycorrhizal fungi not receiving enough carbon
387
Q

Name a few Behavioural predation defence mechanisms?

A
  • Flight
  • Bluff (threat displays e.g. owl)
  • Startle response (moths)
  • “Playing dead” e.g. Virginia Opossum,
388
Q

What % of flowering plants do AM fungi form a relationship with?

A

80%

389
Q

What is a interneferon - freshwater systems

A

Badumcha!

390
Q

Where do ericoid mycorrhizal fungi dominate?

A

Acidic nutrient poor environments
- Low N litter forests
- With enchytraeid worms

391
Q

What advantage does having antifungals (fungitoxic compounds) give to some plants?

A

Other plants surrounding it which rely on mycorrhizals for nutrients struggle to compete due to antifungal in the vicinity

392
Q

What are the environmental negatives to aquaculture?

A

Loss of habitat
- Coastal mangroves
- Wetlands
Nutrient Pollution
- Nitrogen
- Antibiotics

393
Q

What is Competitive Exclusion Principle (Gause’s Principle)?

A
  • If two competing species coexist in a stable environment, then they do so as a result of niche differentiation
  • If, however, there is no such differentiation, or if it is precluded by the habitat, then one competing species will eliminate or exclude the other
394
Q

What does niche differentiation reduce?

A

Interspecific competition
- Allows coexistence

395
Q

Why are monophagous organisms more likely to go extinct?

A

Eat only one type of food
Specialists - not very adaptable
- If food source disappears they go with it

396
Q

What are potential benefits of using the mycorrhizal relationship in agriculture?

A

Reduced fertiliser use
Reduced pesticide use
Carbon accumulation in soil

397
Q

What is a Biotic Homogenisation and why has it occured? Give an example

A

Organism faunas becoming increasingly similar due largely to species introductions
Eg. island flightless birds being wiped out by introduced predators

398
Q

What are some threats to biodiversity?

A
  • Overexploitation by humans
  • Habitat Disruption
  • Climate Change
  • Invasive species
  • Infectious disease
399
Q

What are the benefits of diel vertical migration (DMV) for zooplankton?

A

Nighttime - migrate upwards

  • allows them to feed on surface algae and phytoplankton.
  • more safely.
  • darkness reduces the risk of predation by fish and other visual predators.

Daytime: descend to deeper

  • avoid daytime predators and exposure to harmful UV radiation.
  • cooler water - more favourable for their metabolic processes.

Biology Year 2 (4 decks)

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