Biology Semester 1 Flashcards
What is an organelle?
Parts of the cell that perform specific functions.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
a membrane network that can be smooth or rough due to ribosomes. Trasports materials between organells (smooth ER = lipids ; rough ER = proteins)
Nucleus
stores most of the genetic material (DNA) and is the control centre of the cell and regulates its activity.
Chloroplast
Contained in plant cells, it is the site of photosynthesis, where the light energy from the sun is converted into glucose.
Vacuole
A membrane-bound organelle used as a storage sac storing and getting rid of waste products and toxins, nutrients, regulating the pH of the cytoplasm and cell, and maintaining osmotic balance (equilibrium of salt and water concentration).
Cell wall
An external layer of protection providing support and mechanical strength and prevents excessive water uptake.
Mitochondria
Organelles responsible for producing energy (main energy source: ATP) for the cell by converting glucose and oxygen to ATP.
Cellular respiration
The breaking down of glucose to produce ATP with chemical reactions.
ATP
Adenosine phosphate - chemical compound providing energy.
Golgi Apparatus
helps process and package proteins and lipid molecules.
Lipids
Fatty, waxy or oil compounds soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in polar solvents such as water.
Enzymes
Proteins that start and accelerate chemical reactions. For example, protease enzymes break down other proteins.
Active site
Empty region or cavity in the enzyme used to bind the substrates with the enzyme.
Substrate
Substances that help enzymes create chemical reaction.
Activation energy
The minimum energy to trigger a chemical reaction, enzymes accelerate this.
Catalyst
Substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change.
Anabolic
Supports Synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones together with the storage of energy, also known as constructive metabolism.
How does pH affect Enzymes?
It factors into its ability to bind to a substrate, decrease in efficiency and it factors into it’s likelihood of being denatured or distorted in shape.
How does temperature affect enzymes?
Enzymes have an optimal temperature range that determines efficiency of enzymes with it’s chemical reactions, and also decreases enzyme activity and can cause denature if the temperatures deviates from the range.
Catabolic
Supports the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy in the process.
Product
A result of a chemical reaction with reactants/substrates occurs.
Induced fit
A model describing the theory of the enzyme adjusting the active sites’s shaped with the binded substrate.
Lock and key mechanism
An analogy used to describe the scenario where the enzyme’s active site shape and substrate have a perfect fit without needing to adjust enzyme shape.
Digestion
Breaking down of food into nutrients such as fats or carbohydrates.
Esophagus
The tub that connects food from mouth to stomach.
Stomach
Organ where the food is broken down using digestive juices.
Pancreas
Gland makes enzymes that breaks down the food even more and insulin hormone (which helps body turn food into energy).
Small intestine
Organ where most digestion occurs.
Rectum
Lower end of large intestine and leads to the anus. It’s function is to temporarily store feces or waste until the body goes through a bowel movement and eliminates it.
Anus
Opening at end of digestion tract where bowel movements leave the body.
Liver
Second Largest organ. It produces bile, converts food into energy and cleans alcohol, cleans some medicines, and cleans poisons from the blood.
Gallbladder
Stores bile made by liver then empties it to help digest fats.
Large intestine
Also called colon. It absorbs water and sodium from stool.
Appendix
A pound attached to large intestine. Theories suggest that it may act as a storehouse for beneficial bacterial, or assists with production of antibodies and other immune system cells.
Bile
Fluid helps break down fats and eliminates waste.
Antibodies
A protein produced in response counteracting or neutralizing a specific antigen (foreign substance) by chemically combining with it.
Antigen
A toxin or foreign substance that triggers a immune response in the body.
Types of cell
Eukaryotic - cells with membrane bound organelles, has a nucleus and is for multicellular organisms.
Prokaryotic - cells with no membrane bound organelle, no nucleus and are for single-celluled organisms.
Gland
Organ that secretes (produces and discharges) particular chemical substances for use in the body or for discharge.
Bowel movement
Last stop in the movement of food in your body.
Where are DNA located?
Chloroplasts, Nucleus and mitochondria.
DNA function
Blueprint or code that contains instructions needed for an organism to develop, survive and reproduce and also codes instructing the production of proteins.
DNA structure
Double helix
Amino acids
Simple organic compounds containing both a carboxyl (COOH) and amino (NH2) group.
Nucleotides
Building blocks of nucleic acids, which are the genetic material of living material.
What are nucleic acids made of?
Strands: made of phosphate and Pentose sugar (contains simple sugar with 5 carbon atoms)
Middle parts: Nucleotides arranged my specific sequences/patterns.
Nitrogenous base
One of three components of nucleotides that are organic molecules, containing nitrogen and either purine or pyrimidine (chemical compounds cells use to make building blocks of nucleic acids)
Genes
Sequence of the nitrogenous bases. It can code for proteins. It also contains instructions for a specific trait or function of an organism, such as eye colour or immune system function.
Synthetic
Made by chemical synthesis, especially to imitate a natural product.
Digestion tract
The organs that food and liquids travel through when they are swallowed, digested, absorbed, and leave the body as feces.
What are the four types of active transport?
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Exocytosis
Endocytosis
Ribosomes
Function is to produce proteins
Cell membrane
A double layer of phospholipids, which is semi permeable and only allows certain substances in and out of the cell.
Cytoplasm
Jelly like Fluid inside the cell which substances move through.
Lyosomes
Eliminates waste produced by the cell.
Codons
They are sequences of three nucleotides (adenine, cytosine, guanine, or thymine) found in messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules.
What are the structures that have changed and how have they changed during the course of human evolution?
- Skull
- Pelvis/hip bone
- Hand
Skull
The cranial capacity or the skull’s volume: has overall increased over time.
Shape: The face became flatter, the braincase expanded, and the forehead became more vertical.
Dental change: size of teeth has reduced - linked to changes in diet and the introduction of tool use and cooking, which reduced the need for larger chewing apparatus.
Hipbone/pelvis
It became Broader and Shorter. Became more bowel shaped and wide and more flexible female pelvis to accommodate for larger-brain infants.
Hand
Opposable thumb: allowing for precision grasping and manipulation of objects. Reduced claw-like fingers: allows for improved dexterity and the ability to perform delicate movements.
Out of Africa theory
All humans originated in Africa and that we subsequently migrated out of the continent over time.
What are the types of active transport?
Phagocytosis - specialized cells called Phagocytes surround and absorb large solid particles such as bacteria, dead cells, or other foreign substances.
Pinocytosis -also known as “cell-drinking,” is a process by which cells take in fluids and solutes from their surroundings.
Exocytosis - when the substance exits the cell without crossing the cell membrane.
Endocytosis - when the substance enters the cell without crossing the cell membrane.
What are 5 stages of Evolution?
- Overproduction
- Competition / struggle for survival
- Selecting agent / enviromental pressure
- The best suited (fittest) individuals breed and pass on their genes.
- The individuals in the next generation are better suited to the environment.
Homologous structure
Structure that has similar physical features in organisms that share a common ancestor.
What are basic features of manipulating characteristics?
- Natural selection ( evolution).
- Artificial selection (selective breeding).
- Cloning.
- Genetic engineering.
Human gene therapy
Natural selection
There is genetic variation within a population, resulting from random mutations and genetic recombination. Individuals with advantageous traits have a higher chance of survival and reproductive success. Over time, advantageous traits become more common in a population.
Artificial selection
There is genetic variation within a population, resulting from random mutations and genetic recombination. Individuals with advantageous traits have a higher chance of survival and reproductive success. Over time, advantageous traits become more common in a population.
Cloning.
process of creating genetically identical copies of an organism.
It involves taking the DNA from a donor organism and implanting it into an enucleated egg cell or a cell that has had its nucleus removed. Cloning can occur naturally (e.g., asexual reproduction in certain plants and animals) or can be performed artificially in a laboratory setting.
Genetic engineering.
Genetic engineering involves manipulating an organism’s genetic material to introduce new traits or modify existing ones. It typically involves the insertion or deletion of specific genes within an organism’s genome.
Human gene therapy.
Human gene therapy involves the modification or addition of genetic material to treat or prevent genetic disorders or other diseases.
Singularly
in a remarkable or noticeable way.
