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Pre-med > Biology MCAT Review > Flashcards

Biology MCAT Review Flashcards

1
Q

Bacilli

A

Rod shaped

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2
Q

Conjugation

A

Integration of foreign material sexually, from the donor male to the recipient female

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3
Q

Obligate aerobes

A

Bacteria which undergo aerobic processes and cannot survive without the presence of oxygen

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4
Q

Facultative anaerobes

A

Bacteria which undergo anaerobic processes preferentially, but can undergo aerobic processes in the presence of oxygen

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5
Q

How do eukaryotic cells replicate?

A

Through mitosis, leading to two identical daughter cells

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6
Q

What is the F factor?

A

It is a sex factor in E coli

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7
Q

What are some functions of a peroxisome?

A

It participates in breakdown of long chain fatty acids through Beta-oxidation, helps to synthesize phospholipids and contains enzymes for the pentose phosphate pathway

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8
Q

What causes the death phase?

A

The ultimate depletion of resources in the population

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9
Q

Transduction

A

Foreign DNA integration after infection by a virus

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10
Q

What is a Gram+ cell wall composed of?

A

Thick layer of peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid

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11
Q

What are endosomes?

A

Vesicles that transport cellular materials to the lysosomes, trans-golgi, or cellular membrane

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12
Q

What is a Gram- cell wall composed of?

A

A thin layer of peptidoglycan

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13
Q

What is the Endoplasmic reticulum?

A

It is comprised of interconnected contiguous membranes which originate at the nuclear envelope.

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14
Q

What protein comprises microfilaments?

A

Actin

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15
Q

What are organelles?

A

They are are membrane bound spaces within a eukaryotic cell that have unique functions

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16
Q

What is the result of the exponential growth phase?

A

Quick growth and quickly diminishing resources

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17
Q

Stroma

A

The supportive structure parts of an organ

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18
Q

What form is genetic information present in the nucleus?

A

Genes are present within linear DNA, which is then wrapped around histone proteins to create separate chromosomes

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19
Q

How can lysosomes trigger apoptosis?

A

Through autolysis - the purposeful release of enzymes into the cell

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20
Q

What are two possible types of substrate the lysosome breaks down?

A

Cellular waste products and endocytic materials

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21
Q

Columnar

A

Tall and thin

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22
Q

Cuboidal

A

Cube like

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23
Q

What do negative sense viruses need that positive sense viruses don’t?

A

RNA replicase

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24
Q

What are prions?

A

Misfolded proteins which trigger protein misfolding on a larger scale, leading to lowered solubility and plaque formation

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25
Q

Why are viruses not considered living organisms?

A

They cannot reproduce on their own and they can use RNA as their genetic information

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26
Q

Does epithelial tissue typically contribute to the parenchyma or the stroma?

A

The parenchyma

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27
Q

What is necessary for Conjugation?

A

Sex factors which encode sex pilli

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28
Q

What is a basement membrane

A

It is the bottom layer of epithelium, comprised of connective tissue

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29
Q

What are viruses in the lysogenic cycle called?

A

Productive viruses

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30
Q

What are two characteristics of prokaryotic cells?

A

They are unicellular and do not have a nucleus

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31
Q

What specific organelles are comprised primarily from microtubules?

A

Cilia and flagella

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32
Q

What is an immune function of the peroxisome?

A

It presence in macrophages allows for the degradation of viral/bacterial pathogens

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33
Q

What is the function of intermediate filaments?

A

They are important to cell to cell adhesion, anchoring of the organelles/nucleus, and help maintain integrity of cytoskeleton

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34
Q

Transposons

A

Genetic elements that insert and remove themselves into genomes

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35
Q

What are episomes?

A

Genetic information contained within bacterial plasmids that may be integrated into the genome

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36
Q

Where do you find epithelial tissue?

A

Lining the outside of the body and its cavaties

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37
Q

What is a secondary function of the mitrochrondria?

A

It can trigger apoptosis through release of enzymes from the ETC

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38
Q

What is a plasmid?

A

A small circular form of DNA which is not part of the genome and is not required for survival

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39
Q

How are mitochondria and other organelles thought to have arisen?

A

By a prokaryote engulfing another prokaryote leading to a symbiotic relationship

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40
Q

What secondary structure is affected by prions typically?

A

Alpha helices are misfolded to beta pleated sheets

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41
Q

How are epithelium categorized?

A

Based on shape and number of layers

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42
Q

What is chemostaxis?

A

The ability to sense chemical stimuli and move towards/away from them

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43
Q

What are examples of modifications that can be made to a cellular product?

A

Addition of carbohydrates, phosphates, sulfates or signal sequences

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44
Q

What type of force are intermediate filaments resistant to?

A

Tension

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45
Q

Aerotolerant anaerobes

A

Bacteria which undergo anaerobic processes but can survive in the presence of oxygen

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46
Q

What are similarities between Eukaryotes and Archaea?

A

They have similar metabolic pathways and genes

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47
Q

What is the function of epithelial tissue?

A

To provide a barrier between the body and the outside world; it prevents pathogen invasion and desiccation

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48
Q

What are prokaryotes?

A

Single celled organisms with circular DNA and no membrane bound organelles

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49
Q

What is the purpose of a signal sequence?

A

It contains location information that helps route cellular products to the correct area

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50
Q

Spirilli

A

Spiral shaped

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51
Q

What are functions of the smooth ER?

A

Detoxification of certain drugs/poisons, synthesis of lipids, and transportation of proteins from the rough ER to the Golgi

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52
Q

How do we represent the growth of bacterial colonies?

A

The bacterial growth curve

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53
Q

What is the structure of centrioles?

A

9 triplets of microtubules with a hollow center

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54
Q

What are two characteristics of eukaryotic cells?

A

They have a true nucleus and can be unicellular or mulicellular

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55
Q

How does epithelial tissue look?

A

It appears as tightly connected cells which are also attached to a basement membrane

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56
Q

What is unique about the “9+2” structure?

A

It is only seen in Eukaryotic organelles of motility

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57
Q

What are the three components of the cytoskeleton?

A

Microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments

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58
Q

Squamous

A

Flat and scale like

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59
Q

Negative sense

A

Used to describe single stranded RNA viruses which need to have complementary strand transcribed prior to protein translation

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60
Q

What are kinetochores?

A

The complex of centrioles and chromosomes during the mitosis

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61
Q

How are bacteria and Archaea similar?

A

They both are single celled organisms that contain no nucleus, have circular DNA and divide by fission

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62
Q

What is the main function of the Golgi?

A

To modify and sort cellular products

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63
Q

What does it mean to be Hfr

A

It means high frequency of recombination – cells that easily integrate sex factors into their genome

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64
Q

What are viral envelopes made from?

A

Phospholipids and proteins

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65
Q

What is the name of the microtubule structure within cilia and flagella?

A

“9+2” or an outside tube of 9 microtubule pairs with 2 microtubules within

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66
Q

What are 4 ways that bacterial genes are added extragenomically?

A

Transformation, Conjugation, Transduction and Transposons

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67
Q

What causes the stationary phase?

A

Limited resources which leads to equal growth and death rates

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68
Q

Cocci

A

Spherical

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69
Q

What does it mean when they say the mitochrondria are semi-autonomous?

A

They contain some of their own genes and replicate independently of the nucleus through binary fission

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70
Q

What are microtubules?

A

Hollow rods of tubulin which radiate throughout the cell

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71
Q

What is a primary function of microfilaments in specific cell types?

A

In muscle cells, it interacts with myosin to create force and contraction

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72
Q

What role do microfilaments play in cell replication?

A

They create the cleavage furrow in cytokinesis which allows one cell to split into two

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73
Q

What is the function of a plasmid?

A

Plasmids often confer advantages such as antibiotic resistance

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74
Q

What is the capsid made of?

A

Protein

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75
Q

What protein comprises intermediate filaments?

A

Intermediate filaments are a varied group of filamentous proteins. The composition is determined by cell and tissue type

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76
Q

Are enveloped or non-enveloped viruses stronger?

A

Non enveloped; enveloped viruses are susceptible to heat and detergents

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77
Q

What is connective tissue?

A

Tissue that exists to support the body and provide framework for other tissues

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78
Q

What is the intermembrane space of the mitochondria?

A

The region between the outer and inner mitochondrial membrane

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79
Q

What protein makes up flagella in bacteria?

A

Flagellin

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80
Q

What type of force are microfilaments resistant to?

A

Compression/fracture

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81
Q

Obligate anaerobes

A

Bacteria which undergo anaerobic processes and cannot survive in the presence of oxygen

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82
Q

What are functions of the rough ER?

A

It completes protein synthesis from RNA

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83
Q

What does the double membrane of the nucleus do?

A

It ensures separation of the cytoplastic and nuclear environment by providing selective two-way exchange. It also allows for separation of transcription and translation.

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84
Q

What role do microtubules play in cellular replication?

A

They comprise the centrioles which then organize and pull apart the mitotic spindle during mitosis.

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85
Q

What are virions?

A

Short, circular single stranded RNA that bind to RNA in host cells to silence genes

86
Q

What is a consequence of lysosome dysfunction?

A

Cellular damage and apoptosis caused by accidental release of enzymes into the cytoplasm

87
Q

Transformation

A

Integration of foreign genetic information into the host genome, often by uptake of foreign material after lysis

88
Q

What are cristae important for?

A

Increasing surface area to hold more proteins in the ETC = more ATP creation

89
Q

Pseudostratified epithelium

A

Appears multilayered but all cells are connected to the basement membrane = single layered

90
Q

What are four main functions of the cytoskeleton?

A

It provides structure for the cell, it helps with transportation of cellular material, provides motility and is important for cellular replication/division

91
Q

Does connective tissue typically contribute to the parenchyma or the stroma?

A

The stroma

92
Q

What shape bacteria is the least likely to be pathogenistic?

A

Spirilli

93
Q

What structural element do some but not all viruses have?

A

An envelope

94
Q

What is the mitochrondria’s most important function?

A

To create ATP using proton motive force established by the ETC.

95
Q

Once a virus in the lysogenic cycle integrates into the genome, what is is called?

A

Prophage or provirus

96
Q

What do the sex pilli do?

A

They help form the conjugation bridge which allows for genetic information to transfer between cells

97
Q

What is the mitochrondrial matrix?

A

The region within the inner mitochondrial membrane

98
Q

Simple epithelium

A

single layered

99
Q

What color will Gram- bacteria appear after staining?

A

Pink

100
Q

What are 5 differences between cell structure of eukaryotes and bacteria?

A

Eukaryotes have linear chromosomes organized by histones vs circular chromosomes with histone-like proteins, bacteria contain additional DNA in plasmids, Eukaryotic mitochrondria complete ETC versus the bacterial cell membrane, Eukaryotes have a more complex cytoskeleton, and Eukaryotes have a larger ribosome

101
Q

Stratified Epithelium

A

Multi layered

102
Q

Retroviruses

A

Enveloped single strand RNA viruses which use reverse transcriptase to synthesize DNA and integrate into host genome

103
Q

What is the most important material of a peroxisome?

A

Hydrogen peroxide

104
Q

What is unique about Archaea?

A

They are often extremophiles and use alternative energy sources

105
Q

How is viral genetic information stored?

A

It can be present in small or large amounts, in circular or linear strands, single and double stranded, made from DNA or RNA

106
Q

What are the phases of the bacterial growth curve?

A

Lag phase, log phase, stationary phase and death phase

107
Q

Parenchyma

A

The functional parts of an organ

108
Q

What are 3 functions of the bacterial cell wall?

A

Contains ETC, protects the cell and adds structure, and controls movement of solutes

109
Q

What causes the lag phase?

A

It is the time needed to adjust to the environment and produce cellular machinery to make energy

110
Q

What are centrosomes?

A

The area of the cell where centrioles are found

111
Q

What color will Gram+ bacteria appear after staining?

A

Deep purple

112
Q

What are types of connective tissues?

A

Bone, cartilage, blood, adipose, ligaments, tendons

113
Q

What protein comprises microtubules?

A

Tubulin

114
Q

What are the four tenants of cell theory?

A

All living things are comprised of cells. These cells are the basic functional unit of life. Cells arise only from preexisting cells and they carry genetic information in the form of DNA which is then passed from mother to daughter cell

115
Q

What is the primary function of the lysosome?

A

To contain enzymes which break down many substrates

116
Q

How do prokaryotes reproduce?

A

Binary fissure

117
Q

What additional component is present in the envelope of a Gram- bacterium?

A

An outer membrane composed of phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides

118
Q

What are cristae?

A

The foldings of the membrane within the mitochondria

119
Q

What are viruses in the lytic cycle called?

A

Virulent viruses

120
Q

What is the Golgi Apparatus?

A

It is comprised of stacked membrane bound sacs

121
Q

What are the four types of tissue?

A

Epithelial, connective, muscle and nerve

122
Q

Positive sense

A

Used to describe single stranded RNA viruses which can be directly transcribed into proteins

123
Q

What is cytoplasmic/extranuclear inheritance?

A

The idea that some genes are passed on independently of the nuclear genes due to mitochondrial involvment

124
Q

What are 2 characteristics of the nucleus?

A

It is bound by a double membrane and contains the genetic information of the cell

125
Q

What are the integral components to a virus?

A

Genetic information and capsid

126
Q

What does it mean for epithelium to be polarized?

A

It means that the composition/function of the lumen side of the cell is different than the opposite side

127
Q

What region of the mitrochrondria is acidic?

A

The intermembrane space

128
Q

What occurs within the nucleolus?

A

Ribosomal RNA production

129
Q

What are microfilaments?

A

Solid polymerized rods of actin that create bundles/networks

130
Q

What is the order of phases within the cell cycle?

A

G1, S, G2, and M

131
Q

What occurs during G1?

A

Size of the cell increases, more organelles are produced to support energy needs

132
Q

What is another name for G1?

A

The presynthetic gap

133
Q

What occurs during S phase?

A

The cell replicates its genetic information

134
Q

What is another name for S phase?

A

The synthetic phase

135
Q

What occurs during G2?

A

The cell determines integrity of DNA, increases size and cytoplasm

136
Q

What is another name for G2?

A

The postsynthetic gap

137
Q

What occurs during M phase?

A

Mitosis and cytokinesis

138
Q

What are the two checkpoints in the cell cycle?

A

G1/S and G2/M

139
Q

What occurs during G1/S checkpoint?

A

The cell determines if the DNA has good integrity and repairs the DNA if not

140
Q

What occurs during the G2/M checkpoint?

A

The cell ensures adequate size and amount of organelles to support each new cell

141
Q

What is the main protein involved in both checkpoints of the cell cycle?

A

p53

142
Q

What phases are included in interphase?

A

G1, S, G2

143
Q

What is another name for G1, S, G2 in the cell cycle?

A

Interphase

144
Q

When are chromosomes visible to light microscopy during the cell cycle?

A

During M phase

145
Q

Why are chromosomes not visible to light microscopy during interphase?

A

Because they are present in uncompressed chromatids to be accessible for gene expression

146
Q

What controls the cell cycle?

A

Cyclins and Cyclin-dependent kinases

147
Q

How do cyclins and CDK’s impact cell cycle?

A

Different cyclins are expressed at different times in the cell cycle; they bind to CDK’s which phosphorylate/activate transcription factors which in turn activate genes required for changing phases

148
Q

What are two ways that cancer can occur from cell cycle derrangement?

A

Oncogenes can mutate and be activated, or tumor suppressor genes can mutate and be deactivated

149
Q

What is an oncogene?

A

A gene that when over-expressed promotes cell growth and division

150
Q

What is an example of a tumor suppressor gene and its protein?

A

TP53 and p53

151
Q

Where does mitosis occur?

A

Somatic cells

152
Q

Where does meiosis occur?

A

Germ cells

153
Q

What acronym can you use to remember the stages of mitosis?

A

(P)ass (M)e (A) (T)aco

154
Q

What is the order of mitosis?

A

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telephase

155
Q

What occurs during cytokinesis?

A

One cell divides into two cells

156
Q

What occurs during prophase?

A

Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the nuclear envelopes dissolve, and centriole pairs begin moving to the poles/forming spindle fibers

157
Q

What occurs during metaphase?

A

Spindle fibers attach to chromosomes and align them at the equatorial plate

158
Q

What occurs during anaphase?

A

Centromeres split and sister chromatids are pulled apart to respective poles

159
Q

What occurs during telophase?

A

The spindle apparatus dissolves, the nucleus and nucleoli reform, chromatin reforms

160
Q

What is the result of mitosis?

A

2 identical diploid daughter cells

161
Q

What is the result of meiosis?

A

4 non-identical sex cells

162
Q

Reductional division

A

Cell division which results in reduced ploidy

163
Q

Equational division

A

Cell division which results in equal ploidy

164
Q

What acronym can you use to remember the stages of meiosis?

A

(P)ass (M)e (A) (T)aco (M)(A)

165
Q

True/False: The first stages of meiosis separate the sister chromatids

A

False, it separates homologous chromosomes first

166
Q

What is the result of Telophase 1?

A

Change in ploidy from diploid to haploid

167
Q

What does “formation of the tetrad” refer to?

A

It refers to the structure created when homologous chromosomes are connected during meiosis

168
Q

What is synapsis?

A

The formation of the tetrad in meiosis

169
Q

What is synapsis important for?

A

It increases genetic diversity as gene crossover can occur between homologous chromosomes

170
Q

Which of Mendel’s laws is exhibited during crossover?

A

Mendel’s 2nd law: the law of independent assortment

171
Q

What does Mendel’s second law mean?

A

It means that genes are inherited independently of other genes

172
Q

What is disjunction?

A

The separation of homologous chromosomes

173
Q

What does Mendel’s first law mean?

A

It means that there is random chance to which chromosomes are received from the mother and which are from the father

174
Q

Which of Mendel’s laws is exhibited during disjunction?

A

Mendel’s first law: the law of segregation

175
Q

Are sex linked diseases normally X-linked or Y-linked?

A

X linked

176
Q

Are most x-linked diseases dominant or recessive?

A

Recessive

177
Q

What is the consequence of more x-linked diseases being recessive?

A

Men are more likely to suffer manifestations due to necessary expression of these genes, whereas heterozygous women can dependent on their healthy X

178
Q

SRY

A

Sex-determining region of Y

179
Q

What is the SRY responsible for?

A

It initiates sex differentiation in males

180
Q

What is the role of the seminiferous tubules?

A

To develop sperm

181
Q

What are the two component cell types within the seminiferous tubules?

A

Sertoli cells and the Interstitial cells of Ludwig

182
Q

What is the role of the Sertoli cell?

A

To nourish sperm

183
Q

What is the role of the interstitial cells of Ludwig?

A

To secrete testosterone and other androgens

184
Q

Why are testes contained within the scrotum?

A

For temperature regulation

185
Q

What occurs in the epididmyus?

A

Sperm flagella gain motility and sperm hangout until ejaculation

186
Q

What acronym can help you remember the path of sperm through the reproductive track?

A

SEVE(N) UP

187
Q

What is the full path of sperm?

A

Seminiferous tubules, epididymus, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra, penis

188
Q

What creates semen?

A

Sperm and seminal fluid

189
Q

What do the seminal vesicles provide to sperm?

A

fructose and alkalinity

190
Q

What does the prostate gland provide to sperm?

A

Alkalinity

191
Q

What do the Cowper’s glands provide?

A

Clear viscous fluid to clear the pathway

192
Q

What organelle forms the acrosome?

A

The golgi appartatus

193
Q

What is contained within the head of the sperm?

A

The genetic information

194
Q

What is contained within the mid piece of the sperm?

A

Mitochondria

195
Q

What is the acrosome’s function?

A

It is used to penetrate the ovum

196
Q

Spermatogonia

A

Diploid stem cells prior to any modifications

197
Q

How do spermatogonia become primary spermatocytes?

A

They duplicate their DNA

198
Q

Primary spermatocytes

A

Diploid sperm cells with sister chromatids present

199
Q

How are secondary spermatocytes created?

A

Primary spermatocytes undergo M1 and homologous chromosomes split into separate haploid cells

200
Q

Secondary spermatocytes

A

Haploid sperm cells with sister chromatids present

201
Q

How do secondary spermatocytes become spermatozoa?

A

They undergo M2 to separate sister chromatids

202
Q

Spermatozoa

A

Haploid sperm cells without sister chromatids present

203
Q

When does oogenesis occur in the life cycle?

A

It happens during fetal development

204
Q

What form are oocytes present in prepubescent individuals?

A

Primary oocytes

205
Q

Primary oocyte

A

Diploid oocyte with sister chromatids present

206
Q

When do primary oocytes turn into secondary oocytes?

A

Once per month after puberty

207
Q

What is a large difference between meiosis in sperm cells versus egg cells?

A

Meiosis in egg cells results in an unequal division into the oocyte and a polar body

208
Q

What are the layers which surround an oocyte?

A

The zona pellucida and corona radiata

209
Q

Zona pellucida

A

Acellular glycoprotein layer directly surrounding oocyte

210
Q

What is the function of the zona pellucida?

A

It is integral for sperm binding

211
Q

When do egg cells undergo M2?

A

When sperm successfully penetrates layers using acrosomal enzymes

212
Q
A

Pre-med (3 decks)

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