Biology Lecture 1-5 Flashcards
1
Q
Evolution
A
Evolutionary adaptation towards a species’ environment
2
Q
Lodgepole pine
A
- Seed cones open up after being exposed to high temperatures
- allows for rapid regrowth after forest fires
3
Q
How do biologists define life?
A
Living things show different properties of life
- Order
- Energy processing
- Growth and development
- evolutionary adaptation
- response to the environment
- regulation
- reproduction
4
Q
5 unifying themes of biology
A
- Organization
- information
- energy and matter
- interactions
- evolution
5
Q
Organization
A
life can be studied at different levels, from a molecular level to an entire planet and many things in between -biospshere -ecosystems -communities -populations -organisms -organs and organ systems -tissues -cells -organelles molecules
6
Q
biosphere
A
contains all life on earth
7
Q
ecosystems
A
living things in a particular area and the non-living component in which life interacts with
8
Q
communities
A
variety of organisms inhabiting an eco-system, called a species
9
Q
populations
A
all individuals of a species living in a specific area
10
Q
organisms
A
a single individual in each population
11
Q
organs and organ systems
A
a part of the body or plant that performs a particular function, organs cooperate with each other and create organ systems
12
Q
tissues
A
a group of cells that work together and form organs
13
Q
cells
A
the fundamental unit of living organisms
14
Q
organelles
A
functional components of the cell
15
Q
molecules
A
a chemical structure made of two or more units/atoms
16
Q
What is the lowest level of organization that can perform all activities for required life
A
a cell
17
Q
types of cells
A
Eukaryotic cell
prokaryotic cell
18
Q
Eukaryotic cell
A
has membrane enclosed organelles, in which the largest is usually the nucleus
19
Q
Prokaryotic cell
A
simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, does not contain membrane enclosed organelles
20
Q
Cell division
A
Growth and repair- mitosis
Reproduction- meiosis
21
Q
Chromosomes
A
contain most of a cell genetic material as DNA
22
Q
domains
A
three different domains
- Bacteria and Archaea (prokaryotes)
- Eukarya (eukaryotes)
23
Q
Cilia
A
very common in eukaryotes
24
Q
well adapted organism
A
will survive longer, reproduce and pass down good genetics
25
what makes earth habitable
abundance of water
26
Water
polar because its charge is unevenly distributed
27
properties of water
V shape
"O" is slightly more negative
polar covalent bonds
28
molecules of water
water molecules form weak hydrogen bonds between adjacent water molecules (making water more structured than other liquids)
29
Cohesion
sticking together of water molecules
| helps the transportation of water against gravity in plants
30
adhesion
water sticks to the walls of plant cells
31
surface tension
water molecules have a higher attraction to each other other than to the air
32
cohesion, adhesion and surface tension
help with movement of water from soil to the highest point of the plant
33
moderation of temperature
water is able to absorb heat with little change to its temperature (due to its high specific heat)
34
ice and water
- much more ordered than water allowing it to float
- if ice sank, all water would eventually freeze
- act as habitats for certain animals
35
dissolving in water
each ion gets surrounded by a hydration shell (water molecules)
36
hydrophilic
substance has an affinity to water (able to dissolve, polar molecules)
37
hydrophobic
substance does not have an affinity to water (non-polar molecules do not dissolve in water)
38
Why is water substantial for life
water is in a state of dynamic equilibrium (water dissociates at the same rate they reform
39
Pure water
[H+]=[OH-]
PH=7
-rare dissociation of water, but has a great effect on organisms
40
PH below 7
acidic
41
PH above 7
basic
42
CO2 dissolves in sea water
forms carbonic acid by a process known as ocean acidification
43
Carbon skeletons in organic molecules
- straight
- branched
- arranged in closed rings
44
Hydrocarbons
organic molecules consisting of only hydrogen and carbon (fats)
undergo reactions that can release a large amount of energy (due to many bonds able to be broken)
45
Isomers
compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties
46
Structural isomers
different covalent arrangements
47
Cis-trans isomers
same covalent bonds but differ in spatial arangements
48
enantiomers
mirror images of each other
49
Why do enantiomers of a drug have a different effect on the body
- different shapes
- interact with enzymes differently
- different biological activities
- recognized as two different substances
50
important chemical groups
- hydroxyl
- carbonyl
- carboxyl
- amino
- sulfhydral
- phosphate
- methyl
51
ATP
- Adenine triphosphate
- primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
- consists of organic molecules called adenosine attached to a string of phosphate groups
- stores potential energy that can be released in a reaction with water, and is used by the cell
- energy that is released by a reaction is used by a cell
52
Biological molecules
- Carbohydrates
- Lipids
- Proteins
- Nucleic acids
53
macromolecules
- large and complex molecules that are composed of many covalently connected atoms
- molecular structure and function are inseparable
- are polymers, built from monomers
54
polymer
long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks
55
monomer
smaller, repeating molecules that serve as building blocks
56
Different typed of polymers
- Carbohydrates
- Proteins
- Nucleic acids
57
synthesis and breakdown of polymers
- dehydration reaction
| - hydrolysis reaction
58
Carbohydrates
- serve as fuel and building material
- include sugars and polymers of sugars
- monosaccharides (simplest carbohydrate)
- polysaccharides (polymers of many sugar building blocks)
59
Sugars
- monosaccharides (molecular formulas usually multiples of CH2O)
- glucose (C6H12O6) is the most common monosaccharide
60
Monosaccharides are classified by
- location of carbonyl group
| - number of carbons in the carbon skeleton
61
Monosaccharide
major fuel force for cells and as raw material for building larger organic molecules
62
disaccharides
- forms when a dehydrations reactions joins two monosaccharides
- called glycosidic linkage
63
polysaccharides
- polymers of sugar that have storage and structural roles
| - function and structure are determined by its sugar monomers and the positions of its glycosidic linkages
64
storage polysaccharides
- starch
| - glycogen
65
starch
- storage polysaccharide of plants
- consists entirely of glucose monomers
- plants store surplus starch as granules within chloroplasts, and other plastids
66
Glycogen
- Storage polysaccharides in animals
- mainly in liver and muscle cells
- hydrolysis of glycogen releases glucose when the demand or energy increases
67
Cellulose
Major component of plant cell walls
| -polymer of glucose but glycosidic linkages differ from those of starch
68
structural polysaccharides
-cellulose contains beta glucose instead of alpha glucose as in starch
69
Chitin
- found in arthropod exoskeletons
| - also provides structural supports for fungal cell walls
70
Lipids
- diverse group of hydrophobic molecules
- do not form polymers
- little or no affinity to water (due to non polar hydrocarbons)
71
types of lipids
- Fats
- phospholipids
- steroids
72
Fats
-Constructed from glycerol and fatty acids
73
Glycerol
three carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl attached to each carbon
74
fatty acids
consist of a carboxyl group linked to a long hydrocarbon chain
75
what are fats made of
three fatty acids joined to a glycerol by ester linkages, known as triacylglycerol or triglyceride
76
why do fats separate from water
water molecules and hydrogen bond together but exclude non polar fats
77
Unsaturated fats
liquid at room temperature because the bonds and chains cant pack closely together
-the higher the unsaturated fat the more fluid
78
Hydrogenation
process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats, creates unsaturated fats with trans double bonds
79
essential fatty acids
unsaturated fatty acids, must be supplied through diet
80
functions of fats
- energy storage
| - to cushion and protect vital organs and to insulate the body
81
structure of phospholipids
- two fatty acid tails are attached to a glycerol
| - it is amphipathic (both hydrophobic and hydrophilic)
82
what happens when you add a phospholipid to water
they self assemble into a bilayer
83
steroids
lipids with a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
84
Proteins
- polymers of amino acids
- constructed from the same set of 20 amino acids
- biologically functional molecule that consists of one or more polypeptide
85
Amino acid
- linked together into unbranched polymers called polypeptides
- organic molecules with carboxyl and amino acids
- differ in their properties due to differing side chains, called R groups
- linked by peptide bonds (hydrolysis)
86
types of amino acids
charged=basic or acidic
| Uncharged=Polar or nonpolar
87
Polypeptide
- polymer of amino acids
- range in length from a few t more than a thousand amino acids
- has a unique linear sequence pf amino acids, with an amino end (N-terminus) and a carboxyl end (C-terminus)
88
protein structure and functions
- a functional protein consists of one or more polypeptides folded precisely into a unique shape, or conformation
- protein function relies on its 3D structure
- 3D structure depends on amino acid sequence
- function usually depends on ability to recognize and bind other molecules
89
Primary structures of amino acids
- sequence of amino acids
| - linear amino acid sequence bound by peptide bonds
90
Secondary structure of amino acids
- Form hydrogen bonds and bind other molecules
- folding of primary structure, interactions occur (between amino acids) in the backbone
- double helix
- beta sheets
91
double helix
coiled structure stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the backbones
92
beta sheets
sheets arranged parallel hydrogen bonds formed between them
93
tertiary structure
Due to distal interactions between side chains
94
Quaternary structure
-Bonds between multiple polypetides (tetramer, dimer, multimer)
95
What determines protein structure?
-in addition to primary structure, physical and chemical conditions can affect structure
96
causes of denatured proteins
- alterations in pH, salt concentration, temperature,
| - Biologically inactive
97
Sickle cell disease
-amino acid substitution in hemoglobin
-change in glutamin to valine
-change in structure
exposes a hydrophobic region and hemoglobin interacts with and other forming a fiber
-reduces ability to transport oxygen
98
Misfolded proteins
-associated with many diseases
99
Chaperonins
proteins that promote proper folding of other proteins
100
Nucleic acids
Genes are made of DNA, a nucleic acid made of monomers called nucleotides
101
types of nucleic acids
```
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
```
102
Structure and function of large biological molecules
- In prokaryotes RNA synthesis (transcription) and protein synthesis (translation) both occur in the cytoplams
- no membrane bound organelles in prokaryotes
- transcription and translation occur simultaneously
103
components of nucleic acids
- polymers called polynucleotides
- nucleoside=nitrogenous base and sugar
- nucleotide=nucleoside and phosphate group
104
nitrogenous bases
```
Pyrmidines= cytosine, thymine and uracil (six membered ring
Purines= Adenine and guanine (six membered ring fused to a five membered ring)
```
105
nucleotide polymers
- adjacent nucleotides are joined by covalent bonds formed between -OH group on the carbon of one nucleotide and phosphate on the fifth carbon
- links create sugar-phosphate backbone with nitrogenous bases as appendages
- sequence of bases in a DNA or mRNA polymer is unique for each gene
106
structures of DNA molecules
- double helix
- Adenine pairs with thymine
- cytosine pairs with guanine
107
structure of RNA molecules
- Single strand
- Adenine pairs with Uracil
- Cytosine pairs with guanine
108
types of RNA
- Messenger RNA
- Ribosomal RNA
- Transfer RNA
109
Genomics
refers to the analysis of large sets of genes, or comparisons of whole genomes of different species
110
Proteomics
analysis of large sets of proteins, including their amino acid sequence
111
DNA sequence
codes for amino acid sequence
112
Bioinformatics
uses compotational approaches to deal with the data resulting from the sequencing of many genomes
