Biology Glossary Flashcards
artifacts
something observed in a scientific investigation that is not naturally present but occurs as a result of the investigative procedure
bidirectional ambiguity
problem with correlational research; we cannot be sure whether variable A causes a change in variable B or vice versa; could also be that there is no cause and effect relationship in either direction, but that it is caused by another undetermined third variable
cross sectional design
comparing two or more groups on a particular variable at a specific time. opposite is a longitudinal design where the researcher measures time in an individual over time
domino causality
cause and effect relationships where the effects become causes and there is a sequential unfolding of effects over time
double blind testing
an experimental procedure in which neither the researcher doing the study nor the participants know the specific type of treatment each participant receives until after the experiment is over; (STRENGTH: used to guard against both experimenter bias and placebo effects)
longitudinal study
research over a period of time using observations, interviews, or psychometric testing
meta-analysis
pooling data from multiple studies of the same research question to arrive at one combined answer
placebo effect
a beneficial effect produced by the placebo drug or treatment, which cannot be attributed to the properties of the placebo itself, and must, therefore be due to the patient’s belief in that treatment
prospective research
a study that attempts to find a correlation between two variables by collecting data early in the life of participants and then continuing to test them over a period of time to measure change and development
reductionist approach
analyzes a complex behavior by studying the simplest, most basic mechanisms that believed to be responsible for the behavior
retrospective research
the study of an individual after an important change of development. ex. the study of a person after a stroke, requires the research to “reconstruct” the life of the individual prior to the event
single blind testing
an experiment in which the researchers know which participants are receiving treatment and which are not; however, the participants do not know which condition they are in
triangulation
using multiple data sources, researchers, or methods in an investigation to reach a richer understanding of a behavior or cognitive process
acetylcholine
the most common neurotransmitter. acetylcholine receptor cites are found in the hippocampus. plays a key role in memory consolidation from short term to long term
adrenaline
aka epinephrine, secreted by the adrenal glands and stimulates the sympathetic nervous system; prepares the body for a fight or flight response
agonist
a chemical or a drug that binds to receptors in the brain and causes a reaction. agonists can occur naturally in the body as neurotransmitters (endogenous agonists) or come from exterior sources like drugs and toxins (exogenous agonists)
amygdala
part of the limbic system, believed to play a role in emotion and memory, evidence it plays a role in aggression, sexual orientation, trust and alcoholism
antagonist
chemical or drug that binds to receptors in the brain and prevents a neurotransmitter from having an effect on behavior, ex. scopolamine is an antagonist for acetylcholine
concordance rate
the probability that the same trait will be present in both members of a pair of twins
cortisol
a stress hormone that is secreted by the adrenal cortex, responsible for the breakdown of glucose in the fight or flight response, appears to be linked to hippocampal cell loss and memory dysfunction
dizygotic twins
the clinical term for fraternal twins; occurs when two fertilized eggs are implanted in the uterus walls at the same time. When two eggs are independently fertilized by two different sperm cells, fraternal twins result, the genetic similarity is the same as any other siblings
dopamine
neurotransmitter that helps control the brain’s reward and pleasure centers. dopamine also helps regulate emotional responses. dopamine deficiency results in Parkinson’s disease and people with a lower number of dopamine receptor sites may be more prone to addiction
epigenetics
branch of genetics that focuses on gene expression or how environmental factors may “activate” genes
equal environment fallacy
environmental similarity between twins does not have much of an impact on trait similarity
excitatory function
when a neurotransmitter increases the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential. this depends on the receptor site. many neurotransmitters are excitatory when they act on some receptor sites, and inhibitory when they act on others. ex. serotonin is an excitatory neurotransmitter that regulates sleep and wakefulness and is found in neurons in the pons and upper brain stem - but it is inhibitory in mood and emotion
family studies
researchers trace a phenotype over several generations in a family tree to determine the likelihood that a behavior is inherited
fight or flight response
a physiological reaction that occurs in response to perceived harm or threat to survival. triggered by the sympathetic nervous system activation that innervates the adrenal medulla, producing a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of glucocorticoids. the animal is then reading for fighting or fleeing. this response is recognized as the first state of the Seyle’s General Adaptation Syndrome
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS)
an examination of a genome-wide set of genetic variants in a large sample of individuals to see if any variant is associated with a trait
glucocorticoids
stress hormones that help with the metabolism of glucose, released during stress to assist with the fight or flight response
hippocampus
part of the limbic system, plays a key role in the consolidation of memory from short term to long term as well as play a role in spatial navigation, several acetylcholine receptor sites in the hippocampus, hippocampal cell loss plays a role in dementia, including Alzheimer’s Disease
hormone
a chemical released by a gland directly into the bloodstream which has an effect on behavior
HPA axis
a complex set of interactions between two parts of the brain - the hypothalamus and the pituitary glands- and the adrenal glands that are located at the top of each kidney. this is the basis of human stress response
human genome project
the international, collaborative research program whose goal was the complete mapping and understanding of all the genes of human beings. all our genes together are known as our genomes
inhibitory function
when a neurotransmitter decreases the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential. this depends on the receptor site. many neurotransmitters are inhibitory when they act on some receptor sites and excitatory when they act on others. ex. serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter when it is involved in emotion and mood, but excitatory in sleep and wakefulness
linkage analysis
matching genetic variations (polymorphisms) with the frequency of a behavior
melatonin
secreted by the pineal gland, melatonin forms part of the system that regulates the sleep-wake cycle by chemically causing drowsiness and lowering the body temperature
monozygotic twins
clinical term for identical twins, they share 100% of their DNA
natural selection
the process whereby organisms better adapted by their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring
neural network
usually called a neural circuit, a group of neurons interconnected by synapses to carry out a specific function when activated
neural pruning
usually referred to as synaptic pruning refers to the process by which extra neurons and synaptic connections are eliminated in order to increase the efficiency of neuronal transmissions
neuroplasticity
the brain’s ability to alter its own structure following changes within the body or in the external environment
neurotransmitter
a chemical messenger that carries signals between neurons. neurotransmitters are released from the terminal buttons at the end of an axon after the action has sent an electrical charge down the neuron. the neurotransmitter then crosses the synaptic gap to reach the receptor sire on another neuron
nucleus accumbens
a section of the basal forebrain the nucleus accumbens plays a key role in addiction, pleasure, reinforcement learning, aggression, impulsivity, and the placebo effect. the nucleus accumbens has a significant umber of dopamine receptors
oxytocin
secreted by the pituitary gland, oxytocin plays a role in social recognition, pair bonding, and maternal attachment. for this reason, it is sometimes referred to as the “love hormone.” There is some evidence that oxytocin promotes trust and empathy in in-groups.
permissive effect
when the mere presence of the hormone allows for a behavior, rather the amount of the hormone. in the case of testosterone, Saplosky argues that its not how much testosterone an animal has that determines whether it is aggressive, it is whether they have testosterone
pheromone
a chemical substance produced and released into the environment by an animal affecting the behavior or physiology of others of its own species
polymorphism
a genetic variation (mutation) resulting in the occurrence of several different forms or types of individuals among the members of a single species
polymorphism
a genetic variation (mutation) resulting in the occurrence of several different forms or types of individuals among the members of a single species
reuptake
a reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by the terminal buttons of the pre-synaptic neuron after it has performed its function of transmitting a neural impulse. this prevents further activity of the neurotransmitter. Prozac is an SSRI - that is, a selective serotonin inhibitor, allowing more serotonin to remain in the synaptic gap
selective placement
a limitation of adoption studies in which children are placed with families that are similar to the original family
serotonin
a neurotransmitter that works to regulate mood, appetite, and sleep. Low levels of serotonin have been linked to Clinical Unipolar depression and high levels of aggression. High levels of serotonin have been linked to hallucinations
sexual selection
natural selection arising through preference by one sex for certain characteristics in individuals of the other sex
testosterone
the male sex hormone, secreted by the testes in males and the ovaries in females
disthesis-stress model
attempts to explain a disorder as the result of an interaction between a predisposition and stress caused by life experiences
genetic vulnerability
An underlying inherited susceptibility - that is, the theory that you may have genes that may make you more likely to have certain traits if those genes are exposed to the appropriate environmental stressors.
localization of function
The theory that specific behaviors may have their origin in specific parts of the brain
