Biology Final Flashcards
what is chiasmata
the ring that holds chromosomes together
how long does it take to go through interphase
24 hours
what does replication give rise to in cell division
two identical DNA molecules
what is the substrate-level phosphorylation
enzyme-catalyzed transfer of a phosphate group from a donor to ADP to form ATP
what are the two stages of oxidative phosphorylation
electron transport chain (ETC)
chemiosmosis
what happens to daughter chromosomes during anaphase
they begin to move to the poles
what allows for packing during interphase
histones
where does citric acid cycle occur in prokaryotic cells
cytoplasm
diploid parent cell produces ____ haploid daughter cells(gametes n)
4
what is the one chromosome pair that is not an autosome called
sex chromosome
what gives rise to visible chromosomes
packing/shortening of the DNA
DNA replication of a eukaryotic cell usually occurs between____ ___
cell divisions
how does ATP synthase make ATP
proton motive force
how do complex chemical transformations occur
in a series of reactions
what surrounds the reaction center
300 accessory pigments
what are polar microtubules
form spindle
overlap in center
what is the end product of ATP synthase
oxygen
what is the main function of cell division in multicellular organisms
growth and repair of tissues
what happens to electrons after they are passed through electron carriers
embedded in thylakoid membrane to the enzyme NADP+ reductase
what is the forth step in the z scheme
electrons flow through electron transport chain so ATP is produced by chemiosmosis
after electron acceptors have been reduced the excited electrons are passed through what
a series of electron carriers embedded in the thylakoid membrane
what does photosystem 1 do
absorbs light of wavelength 700nm
what are the two parts of the replication circle
the ori and the ter
what is the power to convert CO2 in light independent reactions
ATP and NADPH
individual chromosomes can be recognized by
length, position of centromere, banding patterns
what are the two types of tumors
benign
malignant
when does telophase occur (not related to phases)
after chromosomes have separated
what are the two parts of glycolysis
steps 1-5
steps 6-10
where do carcinogens attack
external or internal coverings
how much oxygen is needed for glycolysis
none
what are sister chromatids connected by
centromere
where does respiratory chain occur in prokaryotes
plasma membrane
what are the two phases of photosynthesis
light reactions
Calvin cycle
what is spindle made of
microtubule
how many ATP’s are created by glycolysis
2
what is fermentation
converts pyruvate into lactic acid or ethanol, CO2, and ATP
how are metabolic pathways regulated
by key enzymes
what is another word for proton-motive force
potential energy
what does cancer treatment target
cell cycle and tries to inhibit division
what happens when glucose is broken down
it traps free energy in ATP
what is the electron transport chain
series of electron carriers embedded in the membrane of the cristae
what are two examples of electron carriers used in the respiratory chain
cytochrome
ubiquinone
what happens in telophase 2
cells divide
whats th chromosome number for a diploid zygote
2n
acetate combines with what in pyruvate oxidation
coenzyme A
what are two universal electron carriers
NAD+
FAD
redox reactions of electron transport chain generates_____
a H+ gradient across a membrane
what happens to an electron in a molecule when it absorbs a photon
it gains the photons energy
what is the purpose of the 300 accessory pigments
they act as doors for the reaction center. 300 doors and one room
which photosystem comes first in the z scheme
photosystem 2
what removes cohesion at anaphase
the enzyme separase
what parts of the body do leukemias and lymphomas attack
bone marrow, spleen, lymphnodes
during electron transport between P2 and P1, hydrogen ions_____
are pumped into the space inside the thylakoid
how many types of microtubule does a spindle have
two
what is cytogenetics
uses karyotypes to aid in diagnosis of certain disease
what are the offsprings like in sexual reproduction
genetically different from the parents
how are gametes created
meiosis
where is the restriction point located during interphase
at the gap 1 to DNA synthesis transition
when can 30 ATP be created
when NADH has to be shuttled by ATP
what are the four ways to treat a tumor
surgical removal
radiation
chemotherapy
drugs
what colour is xanthophyll
yellow
what are the 5 phases of mitosis
prophase prometaphase metaphase anaphase telophase
whats the purpose of CDK
help during interphase to convert phases
where are metabolic pathways in eukaryotes
compartmentalized organelles
what does FAD stand for
Flavin adenine dinucleotide
what is prometaphase
crossing over between non-sister chromatids
in conversion from ground state to excited state the chlorophylls become _____ and the electron acceptors become _____
oxidized, reduced
what powers the synthesis of glucose from CO2 in light independent reactions
ATP and NADPH
how many carbons are on a pyruvate
3 carbons
what is the function of photosystem 1 in noncyclic
light energy to reduce NADP+ to NADPH
what is the cell cycle
the period between cell divisions
what is the ter of the replication circle
terminus of replication
what are the two types of electron flow in photosynthesis
noncyclic electron transport
cyclic electron transport
what is the name of RuBP
ribulose biphosphate
what happens to chromatids during prophase
they become visible
how much of one glucose molecule is turned into ATP when put through cellular respiration
32 ATP molecules
why do leave colours change to reds
chlorophyll dies revealing carotenoids
gametes growth is by____
mitosis
how can chemotherapy treat tumors
stop growth of metastatic tumors
what is pyruvate from glycolysis reduced by in alcoholic fermentation
NADH and H+
whats the basic difference between mitosis and meiosis
meiosis has genetic variation, mitosis gives identical daughter cells
what is a real world scenario for NADH
the bus that is filled with electrons
reproduction is by____
meiosis
what is the name of G3P
glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate
what is acetyl CoA
acetate plus CoA
what phase do the sister chromatids separate at
anaphase
what is asexual reproduction based on
mitotic division of the nucleus
how does taxol stop tumor growth
freezes mitotic spindle in place
what holds sister chromatids together after replication
cohesion
where do the 32 ATP molecules come from
2 ATP from glycolysis
2 ATP from citric acid cycle
25 ATP from 10 NADH
3 ATP from FADH2
what happens to the centrosome during the S phase of interphase
it doubles to determine spindle orentation
is the formation of ATP exergonic or endergonic
endergonic
when does gap one of interphase occur
between cytokinesis and onset of DNA synthesis phase
foods we eat contain chemical energy in what form
potential or stored energy
how long does it take to go through gap two in interphase
4 hours
_____ _____ do not pair and align themselves independently on the equatorial plate of the spindle
homologous chromosomes (mitosis)
what is the definition of meiosis
nuclear division in cells involved in sexual reproduction
what is chromatin
long, attenuated thread like structure with DNA
where do light and dark reactions take place in the cell
in the thylakoid membrane
what is nondisjunction
meiotic error where homologous pairs dont separate at anaphase 1
what are the pigments that absorb light
chlorophyll a
chlorophyll b
carotenoids
xanophils
an electron starts in ______ then a photon sends it to _____
ground, excited
what attaches dark reactions to NADP+
electron transport chain
what happens to daughter cells after cytokinesis
they go back into interphase
what is a redox reaction
one substance transfers electrons to another substance
where do light reactions take place
thylakoid membranes
how do drugs help treat tumors
disrupt cell cycle
what are the products when glycolysis has oxygen
CO2 and H2O
where does the citric acid cycle occur in eukaryotic cells
mitochondrial matrix
what is alcoholic fermentation used in
baking and wine
how does surgical removal treat tumors
can remove benign tumors
what do centrosomes serve as
mitotic centers or poles
when electrons are transferred from water the ultimate electron is what
donor
why do leaves appear green
there is more chlorophylls than accessory pigments
what do NADH and FADH2 pass through during oxidative phosphorylation
respiratory chain of membrane-associated carriers
meiosis produces_____
gametes
what is the purpose of kinetochores
movement in centromere regions
what is the fluid in a chloroplast called
stroma
what are the two types of antenna systems in noncyclic electron transport
photosystem 1
photosystem 2
chlorophylls function with accessory pigments in a complex called _____
antenna system
what specific pigment makes leaves red in the fall
anthocyanin
what is different for cytokinesis in plant and animal cells
plant cells gain cell walls
what are the inputs for the Calvin cycle
CO2(from atmosphere), ATP and NADPH(from light reactions)
where does vinblastin come from
periwinkle plant
is the breakdown of glucose endergonic or exergonic
exergonic
what is the product of lactic acid fermentation
lactate (it can build up)
what is protein kinase
an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a target protein (called phosphorylation)
what is acetaldehyde reduced to
NAD+
what is the S phase
DNA synthesis
how many ATP produced by the citric acid cycle
2
what does glycolysis yield
pyruvic acid
what colour do chlorophylls absorb
red and blue light
whats important about the chlorophyll molecules structure
it has a hydrocarbon tail that is hydrophobic and it anchors the molecule in the thylakoid membrane
what hydrolyzes ATP for energy to move chromosomes along microtubules towards poles
a protein at the kinetochores called cytoplasmic dynein
in exciting an electron, the energy from the photon does what to the electron
boosts it to another shell
what is the oxidizing agent in glucose combustion
oxygen
the four chromatids of each homologous pair form _____
a tetrad
what materials are needed for the citric acid cycle to continue
acetyl CoA
reoxidized electron carriers
what are the three purposes of meiosis
reduce chromosomes from diploid to haploid, ensure each haploid has complete set of chromosomes, generate diversity
what is the model called for the way photosystem 1 and 2 interact
Z scheme
what is interphase
the cell nucleus is visible and cell functions including replication occur
what is NADP+ in comparison to NAD+
addition of a phosphate group
how does cytokinesis begin
pinching in of the plasma membrane while protein fibers form a ring
what are the two types of cells in prokaryotes
somatic
sex
by what mechanism does photosynthesis create ATP
chemiosmosis
what is the reducing agent in redox
the reactant that becomes oxidized
___ and ___ are used to convert 3PG to G3P
ATP, NADPH
what happens during the M phase
mitosis and cytokinesis occur
what follows replication
cytokinesis
what are the four groups of cancer
carcinogen
sarcomas
leukemias
lymphomas
what is translocation
a piece of chromosome may break away and attach to another chromosome
what keeps the concentration gradient low in a mitochondria
ATP leaving the mitochondria once its made
what are the 8 steps in the citric acid cycle
citrate isocitrate alpha-ketoglutarate succinyl CoA succinate fumarate malatate oxaloacetate
what are thylakoids
flat disk stacks in a chloroplast
what are sister chromatids
newly replicated chromosomes in eukaryotes
what happens to electron acceptors when electrons are sent there
they are reduced
where does pyruvate oxidation occur in prokaryotic cells
plasma membrane
what is the role of mitosis in eukaryotes
separates sister chromatids into two new nuclei which are identical to the parent cell
how can you create a diploid zygote
fuse two haploid gametes together
what do the chromosomes look like during gap 1
chromosomes are single and unreplicated
crossing over results in____
recombinant chromatids
how does glycolysis happen
splitting of 6-carbon glucose into two 3-carbon compounds
what has the only haploid stage
gametes
what is the purpose of enzymes in alcoholic fermentation
enzymes metabolize pyruvate to ethanol
what phase do the centrosomes become aligned at
metaphase
what is a basic definition of cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasmic content
what is the purpose of acetaldehyde reducing to NAD+
so glycolysis can continue
how many chromosomes does a daughter cell have
46
hydrogen ions being pumped into the thylakoid creates what
hydrogen ion gradient with higher concentration inside the thylakoid
where does chiasmata form
between non sister chromatids
where do sister chromatids start
prophase
what happens during mid-prophase 1
synapse align homologs
where is a replication complex located in prokaryotes
in the center of the cell
what is pyruvate oxidized to
acetate
whats another name for a tetrad
bivalent
G3P + G3P =
glucose
why does cytokinesis vary between plant and animal
plant have cell walls
what are tumor suppressors
negative regulators in cancer and normal cells but they are inactive in cancer cells
how many nuclear divisions in mitosis
1 nuclear division
what is the transfer of electrons in photosynthesis
from water (electron donor) to NADP+ (electron acceptor)
what are the products of meiosis 2
4 haploid cells
onceelectrons are ejected from chlorophyll what happens next
thy are passed to an electron acceptor
how many steps are in the citric acid cycle
eight
what phase are daughter chromosomes first spotted at
anaphase
how many membranes does a chloroplast have
two: inner and outer
replication begins at the ____ site and moves towards the ____ site
ori, ter
photosynthesis occurs in______
plants, algae, some protists, some prokaryotes
what is the proton motive force
imbalance of hydrogen ion concentration
what is a karyotype
the number, shapes, and sizes of metaphase in a cell
whats another name for cell division
binary fission
what is cyclin dependent kinase
a protein kinase is an enzyme that catalyses the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a target protein by phosphorylation
how many ATP’s are created by anaerobic
2
what generates diversity among individual organisms
sexual reproduction
what type of reproduction requires gametes
sexual
why is ATP synthesis favoured
keeps concentration low
proton gradient is maintained
what is the role of segregation
distribution of dna into the two new cells
each parent cell contributes what for somatic cells
one homolog
what happens to water at photosystem 2
water is split
how many chromosomes does a gamete have
23
what is reduction
gain of one or more electrons by an atom, ion, or molecule
how long does it take to go through DNA synthesis in interphase
8 hours
what is the M phase
Mitosis
what four things happen in telophase
spindle break down
chromosomes uncoil
nuclear envelope
two daughter nuclei formed
what is a meiotic error
homologous pairs do not behave as they should
where does the citric acid cycle occur
mitochondrial matrix
which type of microtubule is the shortest
polar
what are reactions catalyzed by
specific enzymes
where do sarcomas attack
tissues that support the body
how much NADH is produced by glycolysis
two
how are membranes made in cytokinesis of plant cells
vesicles from golgi fuse to form plasma membrane
the cells resulting from meiosis ___ ___ identical to the parent cell
are not
what are the products of glycolysis without oxygen
lactate or alcohol
what happens during metaphase 2
centromeres line along equatorial plate
what does pyruvate get turned into during alcoholic fermentation
ethanol
what is the third step of the z scheme
excited electrons passed to an electron acceptor then pass through a series of electron carriers in the thylakoid membrane
how many ATP’s are created by aerobic processes
32
where is thee respiratory chain located
inner mitochondrial membrane
cell division is linked to the ___ ___ of an organism
life cycle
how long does it take to go through mitosis in interphase
1 hour
how is ATP produced in the z scheme
chemiosmosis
what does NADP+ do to electrons
gives a pair of electrons to NADP+ reducing it to NADPH
what absorbs light in light reactions
pigment molecules embedded in the membranes
what happens to hydrogen ions due to ATP synthase
hydrogen ions flow back into the stroma
what happens as electrons pass through the carriers in the electron transport chain
ATP is made
what are the outputs of light reactions
O2, NADPH, ATP
what is the cell cycle divided into
mitosis/cytokinesis and interphase
what does binary fission give rise to in prokaryotes
two new cells
what is the role of replication
for DNA (circular)
where does fermentation occur in prokaryotic cells
cytoplasm
where does lactic acid fermentation occur
microorganisms and some muscle cells
name an autotroph
plants
how many chromosomes do human cells have
46
what happens during late prophase 1-prometaphase
chiasmata reflect crossing over and nuclear envelope breaks down
normal cells divide in response to______
extracellular signals
what are the three subphases of interphase
gap 1
DNA synthesis
gap 2
what happens during metaphase 1
homologous pairs line up on equatorial plate
what does the last phase of cellular respiration involve
electron transport chain
what does CDK stand for
cyclin dependent kinase
what drives protons across the membrane
proton-motive force
pyruvate oxidation links glycolysis and what
citric acid cycle
what are the two steps of the electron transport chain
NADH and FADH2 pass through respiratory chain
electron flow results in a proton concentration gradient in the mitochondria
how many sets of chromosomes do gametes have
only one
whats the literal meaning of chromosome
stained body
what is the first step in the z scheme
photons absorbed by antenna complexes then passed to the chlorophylls at their reaction center
what forms between centrosomes
the spindle
where does the z scheme occur
in the thylakoid
do prokaryotes of eukaryotes have more complex cellular division
eukaryotes
NAD+ is an electron carrier in what two forms of redox reactions
NAD+(oxidized)
NADH(reduced)
what is the simplistic definition of photosynthesis
glucose is created by using energy from sunlight
what is constant between oxidation and reduction
they always occur together
what does alcoholic fermentation require
two enzymes
what results from the citric acid cycle
2CO2
1ATP
3NADH
1FADH2
what happens to electrons once they are at the chlorophyll molecule
they are ejected
what is the starting point in the citric acid cycle
acetyl CoA
where is there a low hydrogen concentration in the mitochondria
mitochondrial matrix
what is the total yield of ATP from one molecule of glucose
32
what is energy released captured by in the citric acid cycle
ADP and electron carriers
what does GDP stand for
guanosine diphosphate
how can ATP be produced without oxygen
glycolysis and fermentation
by removing cohesion at anaphase what does this do to the chromosomes
it separates the chromosomes
metabolic pathways are _____ in all organisms
similar
what are the inputs for the citric acid cycle
acetyl CoA, water, electron carriers
how does vinblastin stop tumor growth
prevents spindle formation
by what mechanism do chloroplasts and mitochondria create ATP
chemiosmosis
what happens to the 6-C compound
splits into two 3-C 3PG molecules
light reactions are _______in the stroma
catalyzed by enzymes
what is a basic definition of mitosis
division of cells nuclear content
what colour are chlorophylls
they transmit green light they do not absorb it
how many chromosomes does a parent cell have
46
what colour do carotenoids appear
transmit yellow and orange light
what is a stack of thylakoids called
granum
what is ATP synthase
a channel protein
which type of microtubule is the longest
kinetochore
glycolysis comprises what
ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions
how are ATP’s formed in glycolysis
by substrate level phosphorylation
whats a possible cause of aneuploidy
lack of cohesion to held homologous pairs together
where does glycolysis occur in prokaryotic cells
cytoplasm
what does an allosteric reaction do
causes shape of the enzyme to be changed
what is oxidation
loss of one or more electrons
what are two drugs given to stop tumor growth
taxol
vinblastin
what does the centrosome determine
the plane of cell division
what is the major site of photosynthesis
the leaves
what is the reducing agent in glucose combustion
glucose is reducing agent
what do ATP’s provide
energy available for work
what are the inputs for light reactions
H2O, NADP+, ADP+P
how many pyruvates are created from one glucose molecule
two
what allows for chance combinations during anaphase 1
independent assortment
what forms the cell wall in cytokinesis of the plant cell
contents of vesicles that make up the plasma membrane
how is FADH2 produced
FAD + 2H+ + 2e-
what do accessory pigments do
absorb additional wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum
what are the offsprings of multicellular organisms
clones that are genetically identical to the parent
where do leukemias and lymphomas attack
blood forming tissues
what is phosphorylation
addition of a phosphate group
what are the two differences of cancer cells versus original cells
cancer cells lose control of cell division, metastasis
what is a tumor
a large mass of cells
when electrons are transferred to NADP+ the ultimate electron is what
acceptor
what is the role of cytokinesis
the division of a single cell and its contents into two new cells
what are the two parts of chemiosmosis
protons diffuse into mitochondria through ATP synthase
what is a fuel
molecules whose stored energy can be released for use
what is the enzyme of NADP+ called
NADP+ reductase
how many ATP does FADH2 make in electron transport chain
1 1/2 ATP
what is fertilization
two haploids fuse to forma diploid zygote
how is cohesion associated with aneuploidy
without cohesion, homolog may go to the same pole
give an example of a heterotroph
animals
how does a zygote divide and whats the result
by mitosis to form a mature organism
what happens in the S phase
DNA replicates so the one chromosomes become two sister chromatids
where does glycolysis occur in eukaryotes
external to mitochondria
some G3P is used to make___
glucose
what does NAD+ stand for
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
what part of the structure of chlorophyll is responsible for absorbing light
the heme ring because it contains an atom of magnesium
what are the three differences between mitosis and meiosis 2
DNA doesn’t replicate before meiosis 2, in meiosis 2 sister chromatids cant be identical, half the number of chromosomes at equatorial plate
what acts as proton pumps in the mitochondria
protein complexes I, III, and IV
what organelle does photosynthesis occur in
chloroplasts
how does glycolysis simply convert pyruvic acid
splitting of carbon molecules
what follows glycolysis if no oxygen is present
fermentation
each somatic cell contains _____ pairs of chromosomes with corresponding genes
homologous
what does electron flow result in during oxidative phosphorylation
concentration gradient in the mitochondria
what happens after telophase
cytokinesis
what is the contractile ring of filaments made of
actin and myosin
what is an autotroph
an organism that can live off of photosynthesis
what is the outcome of DNA replication
one chromosome becomes two sister chromatids
crossing over is the reason for ____
genetic diversity
what is oxidative phosphorylation
ATP synthesized by reoxideation of electron carriers in presence of oxygen
what happens during early prophase 1
chromatin begins to condense
what is aneuploidy
chromosomes lacking or in excess (meiotic error)
what happens to the cell as the membrane pinches in during cytokinesis
new cell wall materials are synthesized
male gives ____ chromosomes
female gives ____ chromosomes
____ total chromosomes
23
23
46
what attaches light and dark reactions
electron transport chains
what is the purpose of GTP
converts ADP to ATP
how can radiation treat tumors
stop growth but cell damage
what is the function of the spindle apparatus
separates sister chromatids
what is the condition result from trisomic chromosome 21
Down syndrome
what happens to a fertilized egg if it does not get chromosome 21
lethal monosomic
____is captured from the atmosphere and attached to ____ to make____
CO2, RuBP, 6-C compound
what is the first step of light reactions
absorbance of light
where do kinetochores develop
centromere regions
what goes into the citric acid cycle
2 carbon atoms water NAD FAD GDP
what phase does the kinetochore start at
prometaphase
what is at the center of the antenna system
a pair of chlorophyll a molecules
the reaction center
what is the electron acceptor in lactic acid fermentation
pyruvate
what are steps 1-5 in glycolysis
energy investing
require ATP
what is a heterotroph
an organism that needs food created from autotrophs
chlorophylls and accessory pigments____
absorb photons of light
what part of DNA is a histone attracted to
the negative phosphate groups
what type of cells go through the diplontic life cycle
mostly animals and some plants
how long does it take to go through the cell cycle
24 hours
what are somatic cells
body cells that are not specialized for reproduction
how many homologous chromosomes in parent cell
46
what stage does the spindle begin at
prophase
how many hours does it take to go through mitosis
1 hour
what are the outputs in the citric acid cycle
CO2, reducaed electron carriers, GTP
what is the most common fuel in organisms
glucose
unicellular organisms use cell division for what purpose
reproduction
what is a photoautotroph
plants. they make organic molecules from water and CO2
where does fermentation occur in a eukaryotic cell
external to mitochondria
what is redox
reduction of oxygen
what is another name for pyruvate oxidation
transition step
where does respiratory chain occur in eukaryotic cells
inner membrane of mitochondria
what are the five metabolic pathways
glycolysis fermentation respiratory chain citric acid cycle pyruvate oxidation
what happens to the nuclear envelope during prometaphase
breaks down
what colour is carotene
orange
what is a key factor that occurs during electron transport
protons are actively transported
what are the steps of glycolysis with fermentation
glycolysis
fermentation
what is the definition of cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasm
where does fermentation occur
cytosol
how many reactions occur in the citric acid cycle
eight
what are the three phases of the Calvin cycle
fixation of CO2
reduction of 3PG to G3P
regeneration of RuBP
how is the proton gradient of a mitochondria maintained
electron transport and proton pumping
where do carcinogens appear
skin, lining of small intestine
the centrosomes move to opposite ends of the nuclear envelope during ___ to ___ transition
gap 2, mitosis
what is NADPH
carrier of high energy electrons
what is the function of recombinant chromatids
increase genetic variability of products
22 pairs of chromosomes are called
autosomes
mature organism is ____ and produces _____ by meiosis
diploid, gametes
how can electron carriers be put back in the citric acid cycle
they must be reoxidized
what is the role of reproductive signal
to initiate cell division
what are the two important regions in reproduction
ori
ter
what is lactic acid fermentation used in
cheese and yogurt
what are the three parts of a photosystem
antenna system
reaction center
primary electron acceptor
how can hydrogen ions pass back into the stroma
through ATP synthase
photosystem 2 does what
absorbs light of wavelength 680
what type of organisms will reproduce themselves
unicellular organisms
what are the two types of microtubules in the spindle
polar microtubules
kinetochore microtubules
what are steps 6-10 in glycolysis
energy harvesting
yield NADH and ATP
what are the three metabolic pathways involved in harvesting energy of glucose
glycolysis
cellular respiration
fermentation
what is the diploid number of cells
the total number of homologous chromosomes
in mitosis the diploid number of chromosomes is ______
preserved from parent to daughter
daughter cells are geneticlly____
identical
what is the restriction point of interphase
a commitment made to DNA replication and cell division
what happens to cohesion during prophase
cohesion disappears except at the centromere
whats the name of the divider between daughter cells of cytokinesis in plants
cell plate
what speeds up the division cycle for bacteria
abundant food supplies
what happens during anaphase 1
chromosomes move to opposite sides of cell
what is glycolysis
glucose being converted to pyruvate
what is the oxidizing agent in redox
the reactant that becomes reduced
after new cell wall materials are synthesized in cytokinesis what follows
separation of the two cells
how many ATP do NADH make in the electron transport chain
2 1/2 ATP
how do sister chromatids attach to the spindle
on opposite halves
what is a nucleosome
DNA interacting with histones
what is the purpose of an organism to take in food
glucose needed for cellular respiration
what happens to chromatin during prophase
coils and supercoils to be visible chromosomes
what happens during prometaphase
nuclear envelope breaks down
glycolysis plus ______ yields 32 ATP
cellular respiration
what are the three pathways of cellular respiration
pyruvate oxidation
citric acid cycle
electron transport chain
what is the ori of the replication circle
origin of replication
______are the consumers of the biosphere
heterotrophs
what happens to nuclear envelope during telophase
it forms around separated chromosomes
what happens during prophase 2
chromosomes condense and DNA does NOT replicate
what is the second step in the z scheme
energy of photon absorbed by electron of P1 exciting it then the electrons are ejected from the chlorophyll
in eukaryotes, signals for cell division are related to ____
the needs of the entire organism not just the individual cell
how does taxol stop cancer
interferes with mitotic spindle
what are the reproductive signals that initiate cell division for prokaryotes
external factors like nutrient concentration and environmental conditions
what is cellular respiration
converts pyruvate into H2O, CO2, and ATP
DNA molecules are extensively _____ during interphase
packed
what is transferred in a redox reaction
energy
what is haploid
the number of chromosomes (n)
what abbreviated things are involved in light reactions
NADPH
ATP
no two individuals have _____ genetic make up
identical
what does the breakdown of glucose always start with
glycolysis
what is a malignant tumor
are not localized and can move by metastasis
what is the general structure of a centrosome
two centrioles at right angles
what happens during the s phase of interphase
nucleus replicates its DNA and centrosomes
what happens to chromosomes during prometaphase
chromosomes attach to kinetochore microtubules
what is another name for the daughter cells separating during cytokinesis of animal cells
cleavage of the cytoplasm
what is the abbreviation for free energy
G
how is NADH created
NAD+ + e- + H+
what is the purpose of gap 2
the cell prepares for mitosis
what develops the spindle apparatus
centrosomes
in photosynthesis, electrons are transported from _____ to ____
chlorophyll, NADP+
where does cohesion remain after metaphase
centromere
whats another name for the Calvin cycle
light-independent reactions
what is the literal meaning of glycolysis
sugar breaking
the flow of hydrogen ions through the ATP synthase is______to the synthesis of ATP
coupled
where do light reactions occur
thylakoid membranes
how many chromosomes and DNA molecules do unicellular organisms have
one chromosome, one DNA molecule
what is synapsis
homologous pair of chromosomes during prophase 1
what is the fifth step of the z scheme
photons absorbed by antenna complex of P1 exciting electrons ejected from P2
what is segregation aided by
centrosomes
oxygen accepting electrons from NADH is what type of reaction
exergonic
what is most of G3P used for
regenerate RuBP
where does pyruvate oxidation occur in eukaryotic cells
mitochondrial matrix
why do animal cells pinch during cytokinesis
contractile ring of microfilaments
how are grana connected
interconnected membranes
meiosis consists of_____
two nuclear divisions and one replication of DNA
is ATP synthesis or ATP hydrolysis favored more
ATP synthesis
what triggers the transition from one phase to another
specific signals
if both chromosome 21 homologs go to the same pole what results
trisomic for chromosome 21
what colours do carotenoids absorb
blue and blue-green
what does cell division give rise to in eukaryotic cells
reproduction, growth, regeneration
whats another name for body cells
somatic cells
what is a benign tumor
remain localized and do not migrate
where do organisms obtain glucose from
foods the organisms take in
what happens during telophase 1
chromosomes gather into nuclei and original cell starts to divide
how is energy released in the respiratory chain
as electrons and passed between carriers
_____are the producers of the biosphere
autotrophs
the energy of photons is passed to what
electrons in the pair of chlorophylls at the reaction center
how many steps are there to cell division
6
how does cytokinesis occur in animal cells
plasma membrane pinches
what is the function of photosystem 2 in noncyclic
light energy to oxidize water molecules to produce protons and O2
nuclear envelope reaggregates in telophase 1 and is followed by an interphase called ____
interkinesis
how many hours does it take to go through gap one in interphase
11 hours
how is ATP and NADPH made in light reactions
using energy of sunlight
what is FAD converted to in the citric acid cycle
FADH2
what four event must occur for cell division
reproductive signal
replication
segregation
cytokinesis
glycolysis plus _____ yields 2 ATP
fermentation
what two enzymes are associated with allosteric reactions
CDK
cyclin
how can microtubules get chromosomes towards poles
cytoplasmic dynein
microtubules can shorten
replication occurs as the DNA is threaded through_______
replication complex of proteins
where is gap 2 located in interphase
at the end of the S phase
how many types of chlorophyll are there
four
what is the purpose of glycolysis
break down glucose to get ATP
whats a real world reference for NAD+ and FAD
they are the bus that collects electrons as passengers
where do sarcomas appear
bones and muscles
what type of reaction is noncyclic
light reactions
what happens during anaphase 2
crossing over of chromatids and pulling towards poles
what makes up stroma
proteins, DNA, ribosomes
what are histones
positively charged proteins that attract DNA
what happens when electron carrier are passed from one carrier to the next in oxidative phosphorylation
ATP is made from ADP and P
whats the point of crossing over in meiosis 1
gives genetic variation
what is crossing over
exchange of genetic material occurring at chiasmata
when does interphase occur
after cytokinesis and ends when mitosis begins
where is there a high hydrogen ion concentration in the mitochondria
intermembrane space
whats another name for cellular respiration
aerobic respiration
what are the steps of glycolysis with cellular respiration
glycolysis
pyruvate oxidation
citric acid cycle
electron transport/ATP synthesis
whats the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
aerobic involves oxygen
what happens to chlorophylls when electrons are ejected
chlorophylls are oxidized
whats another name for the breakdown of glucose
oxidation
what happens to energy in pyruvate oxidation
some of stored
what is photosynthesis
the conversion of the kinetic energy of light to the potential energy in the covalent bonds of organic compounds
what follows glycolysis
cellular respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2–>6CO2 + 6H2O + FREE ENERGY
breakdown of glucose
what is the purpose of protons being transported during electron transport
the protons accumulate in the inner membrane space and create a concentration gradient and a charge difference (potential energy)
what is the final electron acceptor (ground-excited state)
NADP+
what are kinetochore microtubules
attach to kinetochores on chromatids
which type of flow of electrons produces more ATP
cyclic electron transport
what two ways can electron carriers be put back into the citric acid cycle
oxidative phosphorylation
fermentation
what gives diversity
random sets of haploids give genetic variation
what organisms does alcoholic fermentation occur in
yeasts and some plant cells
what accepts hydrogen ions in the z scheme
NADP+
where do sarcomas attack
tissues that support the body
what happens to chromosomes during prometaphase
chromosomes attach to kinetochore microtubules
what two enzymes are associated with allosteric reactions
CDK
cyclin
what happens during metaphase 1
homologous pairs line up on equatorial plate
whats the basic difference between mitosis and meiosis
meiosis has genetic variation, mitosis gives identical daughter cells
what stage does the spindle begin at
prophase
where do carcinogens appear
skin, lining of small intestine
whats the purpose of CDK
help during interphase to convert phases
what removes cohesion at anaphase
the enzyme separase
what develops the spindle apparatus
centrosomes
by removing cohesion at anaphase what does this do to the chromosomes
it separates the chromosomes
what is aneuploidy
chromosomes lacking or in excess (meiotic error)
what are sister chromatids connected by
centromere
what is the function of recombinant chromatids
increase genetic variability of products
what are the two differences of cancer cells versus original cells
cancer cells lose control of cell division, metastasis
the four chromatids of each homologous pair form _____
a tetrad
what triggers the transition from one phase to another
specific signals
what is haploid
the number of chromosomes (n)
where is a replication complex located in prokaryotes
in the center of the cell
what phase do the sister chromatids separate at
anaphase
_____ _____ do not pair and align themselves independently on the equatorial plate of the spindle
homologous chromosomes (mitosis)
how many hours does it take to go through mitosis
1 hour
what is the S phase
DNA synthesis
what is the role of cytokinesis
the division of a single cell and its contents into two new cells
what happens during prophase 2
chromosomes condense and DNA does NOT replicate
individual chromosomes can be recognized by
length, position of centromere, banding patterns
which type of microtubule is the shortest
polar
why do animal cells pinch during cytokinesis
contractile ring of microfilaments
what is the definition of meiosis
nuclear division in cells involved in sexual reproduction
what is the definition of cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasm
how does taxol stop cancer
interferes with mitotic spindle
what happens during telophase 1
chromosomes gather into nuclei and original cell starts to divide
what is chromatin
long, attenuated thread like structure with DNA
what is translocation
a piece of chromosome may break away and attach to another chromosome
what happens during prometaphase
nuclear envelope breaks down
whats the literal meaning of chromosome
stained body
what is the role of replication
for DNA (circular)
gametes growth is by____
mitosis
what happens to chromatids during prophase
they become visible
how does cytokinesis occur in animal cells
plasma membrane pinches
how are membranes made in cytokinesis of plant cells
vesicles from golgi fuse to form plasma membrane
how does surgical removal treat tumors
can remove benign tumors
what does cancer treatment target
cell cycle and tries to inhibit division
what part of DNA is a histone attracted to
the negative phosphate groups
what is the general structure of a centrosome
two centrioles at right angles
no two individuals have _____ genetic make up
identical
how many nuclear divisions in mitosis
1 nuclear division
how does taxol stop tumor growth
freezes mitotic spindle in place
meiosis consists of_____
two nuclear divisions and one replication of DNA
what are the 5 phases of mitosis
prophase prometaphase metaphase anaphase telophase
what is the role of segregation
distribution of dna into the two new cells
how many chromosomes does a parent cell have
46
how does cytokinesis begin
pinching in of the plasma membrane while protein fibers form a ring
what is chiasmata
the ring that holds chromosomes together
where do sarcomas appear
bones and muscles
what happens during the s phase of interphase
nucleus replicates its DNA and centrosomes
what are histones
positively charged proteins that attract DNA
cell division is linked to the ___ ___ of an organism
life cycle
what hydrolyzes ATP for energy to move chromosomes along microtubules towards poles
a protein at the kinetochores called cytoplasmic dynein
how does vinblastin stop tumor growth
prevents spindle formation
what is the purpose of kinetochores
movement in centromere regions
what are the offsprings of multicellular organisms
clones that are genetically identical to the parent
what are the two parts of the replication circle
the ori and the ter
what are sister chromatids
newly replicated chromosomes in eukaryotes
what are the two types of cells in prokaryotes
somatic
sex
where is gap 2 located in interphase
at the end of the S phase
how does a zygote divide and whats the result
by mitosis to form a mature organism
what is the restriction point of interphase
a commitment made to DNA replication and cell division
what is nondisjunction
meiotic error where homologous pairs dont separate at anaphase 1
whats another name for cell division
binary fission
what four event must occur for cell division
reproductive signal
replication
segregation
cytokinesis
what forms between centrosomes
the spindle
what is synapsis
homologous pair of chromosomes during prophase 1
what is another name for the daughter cells separating during cytokinesis of animal cells
cleavage of the cytoplasm
what is the outcome of DNA replication
one chromosome becomes two sister chromatids
what is the ter of the replication circle
terminus of replication
what four things happen in telophase
spindle break down
chromosomes uncoil
nuclear envelope
two daughter nuclei formed
what is the role of mitosis in eukaryotes
separates sister chromatids into two new nuclei which are identical to the parent cell
what is the diploid number of cells
the total number of homologous chromosomes
what does replication give rise to in cell division
two identical DNA molecules
replication begins at the ____ site and moves towards the ____ site
ori, ter
crossing over results in____
recombinant chromatids
which type of microtubule is the longest
kinetochore
each parent cell contributes what for somatic cells
one homolog
what has the only haploid stage
gametes
what are the two types of tumors
benign
malignant
what is the role of reproductive signal
to initiate cell division
what is cyclin dependent kinase
a protein kinase is an enzyme that catalyses the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a target protein by phosphorylation
what type of organisms will reproduce themselves
unicellular organisms
where do sister chromatids start
prophase
what is the main function of cell division in multicellular organisms
growth and repair of tissues
what is a malignant tumor
are not localized and can move by metastasis
whats the name of the divider between daughter cells of cytokinesis in plants
cell plate
how is cohesion associated with aneuploidy
without cohesion, homolog may go to the same pole
how long does it take to go through gap two in interphase
4 hours
what speeds up the division cycle for bacteria
abundant food supplies
how can radiation treat tumors
stop growth but cell damage
what happens to cohesion during prophase
cohesion disappears except at the centromere
what does an allosteric reaction do
causes shape of the enzyme to be changed
what are somatic cells
body cells that are not specialized for reproduction
DNA molecules are extensively _____ during interphase
packed
what happens to daughter chromosomes during anaphase
they begin to move to the poles
where does vinblastin come from
periwinkle plant
what is the purpose of gap 2
the cell prepares for mitosis
how do sister chromatids attach to the spindle
on opposite halves
replication occurs as the DNA is threaded through_______
replication complex of proteins
what is the condition result from trisomic chromosome 21
Down syndrome
what is the cell cycle
the period between cell divisions
reproduction is by____
meiosis
how many chromosomes do human cells have
46
normal cells divide in response to______
extracellular signals
how long does it take to go through mitosis in interphase
1 hour
what allows for chance combinations during anaphase 1
independent assortment
what is prometaphase
crossing over between non-sister chromatids
what are the products of meiosis 2
4 haploid cells
what is a basic definition of cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasmic content
when does telophase occur (not related to phases)
after chromosomes have separated
what happens during anaphase 2
crossing over of chromatids and pulling towards poles
how long does it take to go through the cell cycle
24 hours
what are the three subphases of interphase
gap 1
DNA synthesis
gap 2
how long does it take to go through DNA synthesis in interphase
8 hours
crossing over is the reason for ____
genetic diversity
what are polar microtubules
form spindle
overlap in center
what is a benign tumor
remain localized and do not migrate
what does binary fission give rise to in prokaryotes
two new cells
what type of cells go through the diplontic life cycle
mostly animals and some plants
whats the point of crossing over in meiosis 1
gives genetic variation
how do drugs help treat tumors
disrupt cell cycle
what are the offsprings like in sexual reproduction
genetically different from the parents
what happens to the nuclear envelope during prometaphase
breaks down
what happens to a fertilized egg if it does not get chromosome 21
lethal monosomic
what is a meiotic error
homologous pairs do not behave as they should
in eukaryotes, signals for cell division are related to ____
the needs of the entire organism not just the individual cell
what is cytogenetics
uses karyotypes to aid in diagnosis of certain disease
what happens during early prophase 1
chromatin begins to condense
what is the one chromosome pair that is not an autosome called
sex chromosome
what are two drugs given to stop tumor growth
taxol
vinblastin
what is different for cytokinesis in plant and animal cells
plant cells gain cell walls
where does cohesion remain after metaphase
centromere
how many chromosomes does a daughter cell have
46
how many chromosomes does a gamete have
23
where do carcinogens attack
external or internal coverings
what forms the cell wall in cytokinesis of the plant cell
contents of vesicles that make up the plasma membrane
what allows for packing during interphase
histones
how many types of microtubule does a spindle have
two
what parts of the body do leukemias and lymphomas attack
bone marrow, spleen, lymphnodes
DNA replication of a eukaryotic cell usually occurs between____ ___
cell divisions
what happens to chromatin during prophase
coils and supercoils to be visible chromosomes
what do the chromosomes look like during gap 1
chromosomes are single and unreplicated
what does CDK stand for
cyclin dependent kinase
the centrosomes move to opposite ends of the nuclear envelope during ___ to ___ transition
gap 2, mitosis
what are the three purposes of meiosis
reduce chromosomes from diploid to haploid, ensure each haploid has complete set of chromosomes, generate diversity
how many chromosomes and DNA molecules do unicellular organisms have
one chromosome, one DNA molecule
what are kinetochore microtubules
attach to kinetochores on chromatids
how can chemotherapy treat tumors
stop growth of metastatic tumors
what is asexual reproduction based on
mitotic division of the nucleus
what is the M phase
Mitosis
how many steps are there to cell division
6
how many homologous chromosomes in parent cell
46
what happens to nuclear envelope during telophase
it forms around separated chromosomes
what happens during anaphase 1
chromosomes move to opposite sides of cell
where does chiasmata form
between non sister chromatids
whats another name for body cells
somatic cells
when does gap one of interphase occur
between cytokinesis and onset of DNA synthesis phase
what do centrosomes serve as
mitotic centers or poles
22 pairs of chromosomes are called
autosomes
what is a karyotype
the number, shapes, and sizes of metaphase in a cell
what are the four groups of cancer
carcinogen
sarcomas
leukemias
lymphomas
do prokaryotes of eukaryotes have more complex cellular division
eukaryotes
what happens to the centrosome during the S phase of interphase
it doubles to determine spindle orentation
what are the reproductive signals that initiate cell division for prokaryotes
external factors like nutrient concentration and environmental conditions
unicellular organisms use cell division for what purpose
reproduction
what does the centrosome determine
the plane of cell division
whats another name for a tetrad
bivalent
what is the cell cycle divided into
mitosis/cytokinesis and interphase
what holds sister chromatids together after replication
cohesion
where is the restriction point located during interphase
at the gap 1 to DNA synthesis transition
what gives diversity
random sets of haploids give genetic variation
what is segregation aided by
centrosomes
where do leukemias and lymphomas attack
blood forming tissues
how long does it take to go through interphase
24 hours
whats a possible cause of aneuploidy
lack of cohesion to held homologous pairs together
when does interphase occur
after cytokinesis and ends when mitosis begins
diploid parent cell produces ____ haploid daughter cells(gametes n)
4
what phase do the centrosomes become aligned at
metaphase
how can microtubules get chromosomes towards poles
cytoplasmic dynein
microtubules can shorten
what is fertilization
two haploids fuse to forma diploid zygote
what happens during metaphase 2
centromeres line along equatorial plate
what is crossing over
exchange of genetic material occurring at chiasmata
what is spindle made of
microtubule
why does cytokinesis vary between plant and animal
plant have cell walls
what is a basic definition of mitosis
division of cells nuclear content
what does cell division give rise to in eukaryotic cells
reproduction, growth, regeneration
what happens to daughter cells after cytokinesis
they go back into interphase
daughter cells are geneticlly____
identical
what are the two types of microtubules in the spindle
polar microtubules
kinetochore microtubules
the cells resulting from meiosis ___ ___ identical to the parent cell
are not
nuclear envelope reaggregates in telophase 1 and is followed by an interphase called ____
interkinesis
how many hours does it take to go through gap one in interphase
11 hours
whats th chromosome number for a diploid zygote
2n
what happens during late prophase 1-prometaphase
chiasmata reflect crossing over and nuclear envelope breaks down
what is the contractile ring of filaments made of
actin and myosin
what happens in the S phase
DNA replicates so the one chromosomes become two sister chromatids
meiosis produces_____
gametes
if both chromosome 21 homologs go to the same pole what results
trisomic for chromosome 21
what phase are daughter chromosomes first spotted at
anaphase
what are tumor suppressors
negative regulators in cancer and normal cells but they are inactive in cancer cells
what type of reproduction requires gametes
sexual
what are the four ways to treat a tumor
surgical removal
radiation
chemotherapy
drugs
what is interphase
the cell nucleus is visible and cell functions including replication occur
mature organism is ____ and produces _____ by meiosis
diploid, gametes
male gives ____ chromosomes
female gives ____ chromosomes
____ total chromosomes
23
23
46
what phase does the kinetochore start at
prometaphase
in mitosis the diploid number of chromosomes is ______
preserved from parent to daughter
what are the two important regions in reproduction
ori
ter
what follows replication
cytokinesis
what is a tumor
a large mass of cells
what is protein kinase
an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a target protein (called phosphorylation)
what happens after telophase
cytokinesis
how are gametes created
meiosis
what happens to the cell as the membrane pinches in during cytokinesis
new cell wall materials are synthesized
what gives rise to visible chromosomes
packing/shortening of the DNA
what is the function of the spindle apparatus
separates sister chromatids
what is the ori of the replication circle
origin of replication
how can you create a diploid zygote
fuse two haploid gametes together
how many sets of chromosomes do gametes have
only one
where do kinetochores develop
centromere regions
after new cell wall materials are synthesized in cytokinesis what follows
separation of the two cells
what happens during the M phase
mitosis and cytokinesis occur
what are the three differences between mitosis and meiosis 2
DNA doesn’t replicate before meiosis 2, in meiosis 2 sister chromatids cant be identical, half the number of chromosomes at equatorial plate
what is a nucleosome
DNA interacting with histones
what happens in telophase 2
cells divide
what generates diversity among individual organisms
sexual reproduction
what happens during mid-prophase 1
synapse align homologs
each somatic cell contains _____ pairs of chromosomes with corresponding genes
homologous
what colour are chlorophylls
they transmit green light they do not absorb it
what colour do carotenoids appear
transmit yellow and orange light
why do leaves appear green
there is more chlorophylls than accessory pigments
what happens to chlorophylls when electrons are ejected
chlorophylls are oxidized
chlorophylls and accessory pigments____
absorb photons of light
___ and ___ are used to convert 3PG to G3P
ATP, NADPH
what is photosynthesis
the conversion of the kinetic energy of light to the potential energy in the covalent bonds of organic compounds
