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biology exam 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is DNA polymerase?

A

key molecules in DNA replication, add nucleotides one by one to grow DNA chain, incorporate nucleotides that are complementary to the template

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2
Q

What is topoisomerase?

A

relieves the strain by breaking, swivelling, and rejoining DNA strands

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3
Q

what is a helicase?

A

enzyme that untwists the double helix at the replication forks

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4
Q

what is a primase?

A

synthesises short RNA primers during DNA replication

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5
Q

what is a single binding protein?

A

bind to unpaired DNA strands to keep them from re-paring

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6
Q

what is a the difference between a lagging and leading strand?

A

leading: DNA polymerase synthesizes along the replication fork, only requires one primer, elongates continuously by adding the new DNA from 5 prime to 3 prime end

lagging: DNA polymerase synthesizes away from replication fork, strand is primed separately through Okazaki fragments, DNA pol 1 replaces RNA nucleotides with DNA nucleotides, 3 prime end to 5 prime end

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7
Q

what does DNA ligase do?

A

assists lagging strand by joining the sugar phosphate backbones of Okazaki fragments into a continuous DNA strand

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8
Q

what are okazaki fragments?

A

segments within the lagging strand that synthesises discontinously,

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9
Q

what is the end replication problem? what is the result of the end replication problem?

A

because the lagging strand cannot continue until the RNA nucleotides are replaced with DNA nucleotides, at the end of the linear chromosome, there will be a shortening of DNA after every round of replication

the ends of linear chromosomes cannot be fully replicated & the ends shorten w each round of replication

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10
Q

shortening of ends of chromosomes during replication takes place because of ____ strand ONLY

A

lagging

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11
Q

a ___ protects the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes

A

telomere

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12
Q

what is a telomere?

A

protects the genes near the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes

does not contain genes & does not code for proteins, consist of multiple repetitions of one short nucleotide sequence

TTAGGG

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13
Q

what is a solution to the end replication problem?

A

telomeres can extend the unreplicated end within the lagging strand with the use of its own RNA template

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14
Q

what cells have active telomerase?

A

germ and cancer cells

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15
Q

what is chromatin?

A

packages DNA into chromosomes

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16
Q

what is a chromatin structure made up of? what does it form?

A

made up of DNA and histone proteins

forms nucleosomes which are the basic units of DNA

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17
Q

what do the chromatin structures do to DNA?

A

condenses long thin DNA structure into short chromosomes so that it will fit within the nucleus

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18
Q

___ is used to make many copies of a gene & to produce a protein product

A

gene cloning

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19
Q

what enzyme does gene cloning rely on?

A

restriction enzymes

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20
Q

what is a restriction enzyme?

A

cut DNA molecules at a limited number of a specific location called restriction sites

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21
Q

what is a restriction site?

A

a particular short DNA sequence

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22
Q

_______ cut DNA molecules at a limited number within a specific location called ______

A

restriction enzymes, restriction sites

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23
Q

what is PCR? what is its’ function?

A

polymerase chain reaction, makes a bunch of copies of a certain gene

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24
Q

what are the three steps of PCR?

A

desaturation, annealing, and extension

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25
Q

how can you utilise PCR?

A
  1. use PCR to amplify or make many copies of your specific gene
  2. restriction enzymes will cut at a specific fragment, so that you can insert your amplified gene creating a recombinant plasmid
  3. insert recombinant gene into foreign fragment, wait for it to divide
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26
Q

what is the central dogma of Biology?

A

dna (transcription) -> RNA (translation) -> Protein

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27
Q

what is transcription? what form of RNA is used?

A

mRNA temporality binds to complementary DNA in order to obtain genetic info to code for proteins

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28
Q

______ can leave the nucleus whereas _____ cannot

A

mRNA, DNA

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29
Q

_____ is single stranded whereas ____ is double stranded

A

mRNA, DNA

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30
Q

what is translation? where does this step occur?

A

mRNA is read and translated at the ribosomes within the cytoplasm to produce proteins

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31
Q

what indicates what amino acid is produced by the ribosomes?

A

the genetic code

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32
Q

how are prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene expressions different?

A

prokaryotic: transcription and translation occur at the same time, RNA polymerase binds to promoter region

eukaryotic: transcription and translation occur separately and in different locations
transcription (nucleus)
translation (ribosomes)
TATA box & transcription factors serves as recognition point

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33
Q

what is a codon

A

3 base sequence of nucleotides that code for a certain amino acid

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34
Q

what is RNA polymerase?

A

synthesizes RNA molecules from a template of DNA through transcription

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35
Q

what direction does RNA polymerase work in?

A

5 prime end to 3 prime end

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36
Q

what are the stages of transcription?

A

initiation
elongation
termination

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37
Q

what happens within the initiation stage of transcription?

A

RNA polymerase binds to promoter, DNA unwinds, polymerase initiates RNA synthesis at starting point on DNA strand

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38
Q

what happens within the elongation stage of transcription?

A

polymerase moves downstream unwinds DNA and elongates the RNA transcription, the DNA strand begins to reform a double helix

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39
Q

what happens within the termination stage of transcription?

A

RNA transcript is released and polymerase detaches from the DNA

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40
Q

what is RNA processing

A

protects the ends of RNA within Eukaryotic cells to prevent from being degraded w the addition of 3 prime poly A tail ends

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41
Q

3 prime poly A tail ends do what

A

they protect the ends of RNA to prevent them from being degraded

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42
Q

removing the intron region so that the exon region can bind together is an example of _____

A

rna splicing

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43
Q

what is RNA splicing

A

the internal parts of RNA (introns) are removed and the remaining portions (exons) reconnect and are used in translation

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44
Q

exons

A

product of RNA splicing, exons are translated into amino acid sequences

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45
Q

intron

A

waste product of RNA splicing, non coding regions that aren’t used within translation

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46
Q

a ____ recognises introns and slices them, the introns are not used for coding into amino acids

A

spliceosome

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47
Q

what are spliceosomes made of

A

proteins and small RNAs

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48
Q

what role does tRNA have within translation?

A

tRNA translates mRNA into a protein, transfers that protein to the growing polypeptide within a ribosome

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49
Q

how does DNA —> RNA

A

each tRNA enables the translation of a particular mRNA codon into a certain amino acid

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50
Q

how does RNA —> protein

A

the amino acid from tRNA is then at the other end and base pairs w complimentary codon within mRNA

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51
Q

a correct match of tRNA and an amino acid is assisted by __________

A

aminoacyl tRNA synthetase

52
Q

what is a ribosome?

A

enzyme that catalyzes translation and synthesizes new peptide bonds in proteins

53
Q

what are the different binding sites within a ribosome?

A

P site: carries growing polypeptide chain

A site: carries the next amino acid to be added to chain

E site: exit site where tRNA leaves the ribosome

54
Q

what is translation initiation?

A

brings in mRNA, tRNA, & two ribosomal subunits together

small subunits move along mRNa entail it reaches a start codon to begin translation

55
Q

what is the translation elongation cycle?

A

codon recognition, peptide bond formation, translocation

the cycle can be repeated as many times depending on what’s needed by the amino acid

56
Q

what is translation termination?

A

ribosomes stop translation when there is a stop codon, mRNA reaches A site of the ribosome releases polypeptide & translation falls apart

57
Q

what are the three types of mutations?

A

silent mutation
missense mutation
nonsense mutation

58
Q

what is silent mutation

A

amino acid sequence has no effect

59
Q

what is missense mutation

A

a new unexpected amino acid forms

60
Q

nonsense mutation

A

stops translation early on due to stop codon

61
Q

what is a frameshift mutation? how does this occur?

A

DNA code shifts resulting into many different amino acids that follow

occurs randomly through insertions or deletions

62
Q

what is the least severe mutation

A

silent mutation

63
Q

what is the most severe mutation?

A

nonsense mutation due to the fact that translation stops all together because of the end codon

64
Q

what is gene expression?

A

determines which genes are being turned off and on to create different cells

65
Q

what’s the role of DOGMA within gene expression?

A

controls how much protein is used within the cells

66
Q

the majority of gene expression within Eukaryotes are controlled within _____ ?

A

transcription initiation

67
Q

an ____ is turned on within transcription initiation

A

activator

68
Q

activator role within transcription

A

activates transcription by recruiting RNA polymerase to a specific gene

69
Q

the role of a repressor is

A

turning off transcription where RNA polymerase cannot bind to a specific gene, results in no translation

70
Q

the synthesis of trp operon is controlled by the ___

A

repressor

71
Q

the following replication enzyme is responsible for catalyzing the formation of new phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides (producing a new DNA strand from nucleotides)

A

DNA polymerase

72
Q

the following replication enzyme is used to unwind double stranded DNA into single- stranded DNA

A

helicase

73
Q

telomerase is able to

A

add additional DNA repeats on to the end of linear chromosomes

74
Q

a nucleosomes is the made up of

A

DNA and histone proteins

75
Q

a plasmid is made up of

A

DNA

76
Q

a restriction enzyme conducts this enzymatic reaction

A

cuts a specific DNA sequence

77
Q

the following codon encodes for Glycine

A

GGA

78
Q

evidence that the genetic code is redundant is that

A

four different codons (GCU, GCC, GCA, GCG) all encode for the same amino acid, alanine

79
Q

the TATA box is

A

the site of transcription factor binding

80
Q

the enzyme that catalyzes transcription (assembly of nucleotides into RNA) is:

A

RNA polymerase

81
Q

the following step takes place last during the gene process of gene expression in eukaryotes

A

protein translation

82
Q

the following is able to be translated into a protein amino acid sequence

A

mRNA exons

83
Q

an aminoacyl- tRNA synthetase contains binding sites for the following two molecules

A

tRNA and amino acid

84
Q

the enzyme that catalyzes the formation of new peptide bonds during translation is the

A

ribosome

85
Q

the E site, P site, and A site in the ribosome are

A

tRNA binding sites

86
Q

the following mutation will likely result in the most severe phenotype

A

frameshift mutation
equivalent to nonsense mutation

87
Q

gene expression is most frequently regulated at the stage of

A

transcription control

88
Q

the genes in the trp operon are used to

A

synthesize tryptophan when tryptophan levels are low

89
Q

when glucose levels are low and lactose levels are high lac operon is ____

A

lac operon is turned on

90
Q

_____ are located a long distance from the promoter

A

enhancers

91
Q

the following change to chromatin would increase transcription levels

A

treating with histone HAT

92
Q

the following process can result in a change in the amino acid sequence of the protein products that are produced

A

alternative splicing

93
Q

siRNAs and miRNAs control gene expression at the stage of

A

mRNA degradation

94
Q

in-situ hybridisation is an experimental technique used to identify

A

the sequence of specific mRNAs

95
Q

apoptosis is best described as

A

controlled and intentional cell death

96
Q

if the bicoid protein was expressed on both the anterior and the posterior ends of a drosophila embryo, this would result in

A

an embryo with a head on both the anterior and posterior ends

97
Q

iPS cell is most similar to

A

an embryonic stem cell

98
Q

p53 is an example of (breaks)

A

tumor suppressor gene

99
Q

cancer usually develops from

A

multiple mutations in both pronto oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes

100
Q

______ are viruses that infect bacteria cells

A

bacteriaphages

101
Q

DNA location

A

nucleus

102
Q

what does RNA contain ?? ____ sr

A

sugar ribose

103
Q

___ contains sugar deoxyribose

A

DNA

104
Q

what contains uracil? DNA or RNA?

A

RNA

105
Q

what contains thymine? DNA or RNA

A

DNA

106
Q

where is the location of RNA

A

cytoplasm

107
Q

what bonds the template and complementary DNA strands together?

A

hydrogen bonds

108
Q

Three bases in the coding sequence of DNA are AGT. What is the tRNA anticodon that binds the mRNA codon transcribed from the DNA bases?

A

AGU

109
Q

Three bases in the coding sequence of DNA are AGT. What is the transcribed mRNA codon?

A

UCA

110
Q

What do 5’ and 3’ refer to in DNA and RNA strands?

A

They indicate the carbon numbers in the DNA (or RNA) sugar of the DNA (or RNA) backbone.

111
Q

what type of bonds stabilize tRNA secondary structure

A

hydrogen bonds

112
Q

what type of bonds are made between nucleotides in a new DNA stand

A

phosphodiester bonds

113
Q

what is involved within translation?

A

mRNA, tRNA, and ribosomes

114
Q

what is involved within transcription?

A

RNA polymerase, and DNA

115
Q

Three bases in the coding sequence of DNA are AGT. What is the corresponding triplet in the complementary DNA strand?

A

TCA

116
Q

all viruses contain

A

a protein capsid or coat

117
Q

A step which occurs in the lysogenic phage replicative cycle that does not occur with the lytic replicative cycle is:

A

phage DNA incorporation into the bacterial chromosome

118
Q

CRISPR developed for this purpose:

A

a means for bacterial cells to fight against viruses that they have encountered previously

119
Q

Individuals who are resistant to HIV infection lack the following gene:

A

CCR5

120
Q

The most significant virus for human health in the last thousand years is likely:

A

smallpox

121
Q

The smallpox vaccine is:

A

a less deadly natural form of smallpox that infects cows

122
Q

The following are strategies that have been used to make COVID-19 vaccines:

A

All of these strategies are being used to develop a possible COVID-19 vaccine

123
Q

The Pfizer and Moderna COVID-10 vaccines are:

A

mRNA vaccines

124
Q

The striking improvements in DNA genome sequencing cost and time has been primarily due to:

A

development of next-generation sequencing technology

125
Q

The following species has the longest genome of the four listed:

A

human

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