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MCAT Biology Kap > Biology Ch. 1-4 > Flashcards

Biology Ch. 1-4 Flashcards

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1
Q

Cell cylce

A

Cycle of cells life. consists of 4 primary stages: G1, S, G2 (interphase), and MPhase. 90% of cell life is in Interphase

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2
Q

G1 Phase

A

Presynthetic Gap. Cell creates organelles for energy production of new cell & increase in size for division.

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3
Q

S Phase

A

Synthesis of DNA. DNA joined at centromeres as sister chromatid. Still only at 46 chromosomes because they are attached.

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4
Q

G2 Phase

A

Postsynthetic Gap. Checkpoint. Checks to see if there are enough organelles and if DNA was replicated correctly.

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5
Q

M Stage

A

Mitosis. Contains 4 stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.

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6
Q

G1/S Checkpoint

A

Determines if DNA is good for replication. Also known as a restriction point. Controlled by p53 protein.

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7
Q

G2/M checkpoint

A

focused on checking cell size and if organelles have been properly replicated.

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8
Q

Metastasis

A

Cancerous cells spread to lymphatic systems.

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9
Q

Prophase

A

Condensation of chromatin into chromosomes. Centriole pairs split and move towards opposite poles of cell. Once centrioles reach opposite ends, they make spindle fibers and asters, which attach to cell membrane, from microtubles.

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10
Q

Metaphase

A

Centriole pairs reach opposite poles of cell. Spindles, with help from kinetochore fibers align chromosomes at middle of cell (Metaphase plate).

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11
Q

Anaphase

A

Centromeres split allowing sister chromatids to split. Sister chromatids pulled toward opposite poles.

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12
Q

Telophase

A

Spindle disappears, nuclear membrane reforms. Chromosomes uncoil into chromatin.

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13
Q

Cytokineses

A

Happens at end of telophase. Separation of cytoplasm and organelles giving each cell ability to survive.

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14
Q

Recombination Crossover

A

Chromosomes cross over section of chromosome and swap gene codes on the chromosome for greater variance in genome.

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15
Q

Meiosis

A

Division of cells to produce gametes (4 non-identical sex cells). They are produced by gametocytes. This follows same pattern of Mitosis but twice to create 23 chromosome cells

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16
Q

Primitive gonard and its function

A

The testes.

1) Seminiferous tubes: produce sperm
2) Interstitial cells of leydig: nourish sperm cells.

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17
Q

Path of sperm ejaculation

A

Sperm is stored in Epididymis. Once it is time for ejaculation, sperm moves up vas deferens, into the ejaculatory duct, through the urethra and out of the body.

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18
Q

Prostate

A

Mixes sperm with Seminal fluid which it produces

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19
Q

Bulbourethral

A

Cleans out urethra before sperm comes.

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20
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

Follows pathway of Meiosis producing haploid spermatids. Upon maturing they become spermatozoa.

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21
Q

Head of sperm cell

A

Covered by Acrosome: structure that is derived from golgi, necessary for penetrating ovum.

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22
Q

Oogenesis

A

Female gamete production (Meiosis). At birth all Oogonia have already undergone DNA replication becoming primary oocytes

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23
Q

Primary oocytes

A

Sex cells of females that have already undergone DNA replication but stopped at Prophase I

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24
Q

Menarche

A

a women’s first menstrual cycle. From here, Primary oocytes complete Meiosis I and become secondary oocytes. Secondary only completes Meiosis II if fertilized.

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25
Q

Oocyte Protection: Zona Pellucida

A

Made of Glycoproteins and compounds for sperm binding.

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26
Q

Oocyte Protection: Corona Radiata

A

Outside of Zona Pellucida. Layer of cells that adhere to Oocyte during ovulation.

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27
Q

Testosterone

A

Produced by testes. Helps promote sperm formation. FSH interacts w/ Sertoli cells, triggering sperm maturation. LH interacts w/ interstitial cells for testosterone production. Also produces secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair, deep voice, increased muscle, etc

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28
Q

Ovaries

A

Produce estrogen and progesterone from interacting w/ FSH and LH

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29
Q

Estrogen

A

Comes from FSH stimulation. Reproductive system and secondary sexual characteristics

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30
Q

Progesterone

A

Comes from Corpus Luteum in response to LH. Involved in maintenance of endometrium.

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31
Q

Menstural cycle

A

Estrogen and Progesterone levels rise and fall monthly, resulting in growing and shredding of the endometrial lining and egg. 4 Steps/stages: Follicular Phase–> Ovulation–> Luteal phase–> Menstruation.

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32
Q

Follicular Phase

A

Begins w/ Menstrual flow (shredding of endometrial/period). FSH and LH increase. estrogen is produced and begins to regrow endometrial lining.

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33
Q

Ovulation

A

Estrogen Levels get so high that LH and FSH levels Spike. High LH levels cause Ovulation. Release of the ovum (egg) from the ovary into abdominal cavity.

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34
Q

Luteal Phase

A

LH causes ruptured follicle to form corpus lutem. Progesterone is produced to keep ovum ready for implantation. LH & FSH levels drop to unsure only one egg gets out.

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35
Q

Menstruation

A

If not pregnant, Corpus Luteum losses LH stimulus. Progesterone dies off, uterine lining sloughed off. New cycle begins.

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36
Q

Pregnancy

A

zygote produces blastocytes that implant to uterine lining and secrete human chronic gonadotropin. This maintains corpus luteum.

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37
Q

Menopause

A

Ovaries become less sensitive to FSH and LH. Levels of FSH and LH skyrocket causing sever side effects.

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38
Q

Fertilization

A

Egg and sperm meet. Occurs at widest part of Fallopian Tube called ampulla. Sperm binds to Oocyte and releases Acrosomal enzymes. These allow head to penetrate the corona radiata and Zona Pellucida.

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39
Q

Acrosomal apparatus

A

Tube like structures formed by sperm to penetrates Ovum’s membrane

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40
Q

Cortical Rxn

A

Calcium ions are released causing a depolarized ovum membrane, called a fertilization membrane. It can no longer be penetrated by other sperm cells and has increased growth.

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41
Q

Dizygotic twins

A

2 eggs released during cycle and both are fertilized by 2 different sperm cells

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42
Q

Monozygotic twins

A

a single zygote splits into two.

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43
Q

Cleavage

A

Rapid mitotic cell division occurring as zygote travels from fallopian tube to the uterus. 2 types exist: Indeterminate and Deteminate

44
Q

Indeterminate Cleavage

A

results in cell that can still develop into organism

45
Q

Determinate

A

Results in cells whose fates are determined. They will be part of the same organism.

46
Q

Blasutlation

A

Formation of a blastula, a hollow ball of cells w/ a fluid filled center. Has an Inner cell mass that becomes the organism itself and the outer edge of cells, the trophoblast, which becomes placenta.

47
Q

Morula

A

solid mass of cells. Forms into a blastula.

48
Q

Implantation

A

Blastula moves to uterus and burrows into the endometrium

49
Q

Chorion

A

Trophoblast produced extraembryonic membrane that develops into placenta.

50
Q

Chorionic Villi

A

Microscopic finger like projection that penetrates and hooks onto endometrium (also formed by trophoblast)

51
Q

Umbilical Cord

A

Connects embryo to placenta. Made of 2 arteries (going from fetus to placenta) and 1 vein (going from placenta to fetus)

52
Q

Yolk Sac

A

Supports embryo before placenta forms. Site of early blood cell development.

53
Q

Allantois

A

Early fluid exchange between embryo and yolk sac

54
Q

Amnion

A

Surround allantois. Filled w/ amniotic fluid which creates cushion and support during pregnancy.

55
Q

Gastrulation

A

Generation of 3 distinct cell layers.

1) cells move inward, splitting morula and eliminating blastocel. Produces Gastrula. This is called Archenteron. Later will produce gut.
2) Opening in archenteron called balstospore. Turns into anus for Deuterostomes and mouth for protostomes.

56
Q

3 Primary germ layers

A

Endoderm, Ectoderm, and Mesoderm

57
Q

Endoderm

A

Internal Organs and accessory organs.

58
Q

Ectoderm

A

Produces all things associated with epidermis. Also responsible for nervous system and inner ear

59
Q

Mesoderm

A

Every means we need to live. Produces bones, muscle and circulatory system.

60
Q

Induction

A

Ability of one group of cells to influence how another cell will behave or what it will become.

61
Q

Notochord

A

Rod of mesodermal cells forms along long axis of organism. Notochord forces cells inward, forming neural folds.

62
Q

Neural folds

A

Folds grow toward each other pinching neural groove off into neural tube, this becomes the CNS

63
Q

Neural Crest Cells

A

Migrate outward forming peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

64
Q

Specification

A

Cell is reversibly designated a specific cell type. Not yet a set in-stone thing. Hasn’t changed into anything

65
Q

Determination

A

Commitment of cell to a particular function. Can do this by 1) presence of specific mRNA & protein given from mother cell. 2) Secretion by specific molecules near by (induction) these molecules are morphagens

66
Q

Differentiation

A

Change in structure, function, and biochemistry of cells to match determined cell type.

67
Q

Stem Cells

A

Cells that have not been differentiated or give rise to other cells that differentiate. What these cells become depends on potency. Everyone has Stem Cells.

68
Q

Totipotent

A

Extremely high potency. Like embryonic cells can become any type of cell

69
Q

Pluripotent

A

Cells can differentiate into any cell except placenta structures

70
Q

Multipotent

A

Cells that can differentiate into multiple types of cells in a given group.

71
Q

Autocrine

A

communication to self by secretion of a molecule to receptors on outside of cell

72
Q

Paracrince

A

Communication from one cell to a nearby cell in local area

73
Q

Endocrine

A

Secreted hormones travel through bloodstream to distant target tissues.

74
Q

Jusxtacrine

A

One cell directly stimulates an adjacent cell

75
Q

Inducers

A

Often Growth Hormones. Peptides that promote differentiation and mitosis in a certain tissue.

76
Q

Apoptosis

A

Programmed cellular death. Done by self containment in apoptotic bulbs. Theses bulbs are then exocytocised out of the cell in bulb bodies which are destroyed.

77
Q

Necrosis

A

Death through injury

78
Q

Regeneration

A

ability of an organism to regrow certain parts of the body

79
Q

Complete Regeneration

A

lost or damaged tissue are completely replaced w/ identical tissue by stem cells.

80
Q

Incomplete Regeneration

A

Newly formed tissue is not identical in structure of function to original tissue

81
Q

Senescence

A

Biological aging

82
Q

Fetal Hemoglobin (HbF)

A

Hemoglobin w/ higher affinity to oxygen to promote oxygen transfer to fetus. As oxygen goes in, waste and CO2 go outward

83
Q

Umbilical arteries

A

Pump deoxygenated blood away from the fetus and towards the placenta.

84
Q

Umbilical vein

A

Carries oxygenated blood towards the fetus and away from the placenta

85
Q

Shunts

A

Used to direct blood away from fetus lungs and liver for proper development. 3 types exist: Foramen Ovale, Ductus Arteriosus, and Ductus Venosus.

86
Q

Foramen Ovale

A

Directly connects the right atrium to the left atrium. Right side of fetus is higher pressure, so flows opposite direction (for Lungs)

87
Q

Ductus Arteriosus

A

Shunts leftover blood form the pulmonary artery to the aorta. (for lungs)

88
Q

Ductus Venosus

A

Shunts blood returning from the placenta via the umbilical vein directly into the inferior Vena Cava.
(For liver)

89
Q

First Trimester

A

Major organs begin to develop during first few weeks, Cartilaginous skeleton begins to harden into bone
By end, most organs formed, brain fairly developed, andembryo becomes fetus.

90
Q

Second Trimester

A

Tremendous Growth, movement in Amniotic Fluid
Face takes human appearance
Toes and fingers elongate

91
Q

Third Trimester

A

Continued growth and brain development

Antibodies transported from Mom to Fetus preparing Fetus for outside world

92
Q

3 Phases of Birth

A

1) Cervices thins out & Amniotic Sac ruptures
2) Strong contraction birth fetus
3) Placenta and Umbilical cord are expelled (afterbirth)

93
Q

Neurons

A

Specialized cells capable of transmitting electrical impulses and then translating those electrical impulses into chemical signals

94
Q
  • Soma

- Dendrite

A
  • Normally thought cytoplasm of cell

- Appendages from Soma. Receive incoming chemical messages.

95
Q

Axon Hillock

A

Integrates incoming message. Has important role in action potential. can be seen as the gateway.

96
Q

Axon

A

long structure the message travels down (electrically)

97
Q

Myelin

A

Fatty membrane that insulates neuron for smooth and quick transmission

98
Q

Oligodendrocytes

Schwann Cells

A

Myelin producing cells for CNS

Myelin producing cells for PNS

99
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

Exposed strips of Axon. Critical for rapid signal conduction

100
Q

Nerve terminal

A

releases message as neurotransmitter to next cell in line.

101
Q

Synaptic Cleft

A

Gap between 2 neurons

102
Q

Nerve

A

Bundled neurons in the PNS

103
Q

Tracts

A

Bundled neurons in the CNS

104
Q

Glial Cells

A

Support cells for neurons. Include: Astrocytes, Ependymal Cells, Microglia, Oligodendrocytes, and Schwann Cells

105
Q

Astrocytes

A

Nourish neurons and form blood brain barrier

106
Q

Ependymal Cells

A

Line ventricles of brain, produce cerebrospinal fluid

107
Q

Microglia

A

Phagocyte Cells. Breakdown waste products and pathogens in the central nervous system.

MCAT Biology Kap (3 decks)

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