Biology and Behavior

Question 1

Who is Franz Gall

Answer 1

(1758-1828) Had one of the earliest theories that behavior, intellect, and personality were linked to brain anatomy.
Developed theory of phrenology (idea that particular areas of brain would grow as the particular trait that the area was in charge of grew)
Believed that once could measure psychological attributes by measuring parts of skull

Question 2

Who is Pierre Flourens

Answer 2

(1794-1867) First person to study the functions of the major sections of the brain.
Accomplished by extirpation (ablation)
Work asserted certain parts had certain functions (removing one or some weakened brain)

Question 3

What is Ablation

Answer 3

Various parts of the brain are removed surgically and the behavioral consequences are observed

Question 4

Who is William James

Answer 4

(1842-1910) Known as the father of American Psychology
Studied how the brain adapts to its environment
Views formed the foundation for Functionalism

Question 5

What is Functionalism

Answer 5

Studies how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments

Question 6

Who is John Dewey

Answer 6

(1859-1952) 1896 article he wrote is seen as the inception of functionalism
Criticized the concept of the reflex arc (breaks the process of reacting to a stimulus into discrete parts)
Believed psychology should focus on the study of the organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to its environment

Question 7

Who is Paul Broca

Answer 7

(1824-1880) examined the behavioral deficits of people with brain damage
First to demonstrate that specific functional impairments could be linked with specific brain lesions
Studied a man who couldn’t speak, discovered he had a lesion on the left side of the mans brain (area now known as Broca’s area)

Question 8

Who is Hermann von Helmholtz

Answer 8

(1821-1894) Was the first to measure the speed of a nerve impulse and related that time to reaction time
Provided important link between behavior and underlying nervous system
credited with moving psychology out of realm of philosophy and into quantifiable science

Question 9

Sir Charles Sherrington

Answer 9

(1857-1952) First inferred the existence of synapses
All but one of his conclusions have held over time (he thought synaptic transmission was electrical but is a chemical process)

Question 10

What are the three types of nerve cells and what are their roles

Answer 10

1.) Sensory Neurons (afferent neurons): transmit sensory info from receptors to spinal cord and brain
2.) Motor Neurons (efferent neurons): transmit motor info from brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands
3.) Interneurons: found between neurons (mostly in brain and spinal cord), Linked to reflexive behavior, most numerous of the three
Neutral circuits called reflexive arcs (begins sensory neuron at a receptor and ends with a motor neuron at an effector) control this type of reflexive behavior

Question 11

What are the two divisons of the nervous system

Answer 11

1. ) Central Nervous System: composed of the brain and spinal cord
2. ) Peripheral Nervous System: Made of nervous tissue and fibers outside of the brain and spinal cord (includes all 31 pairs of nerves emanating from spinal cord, and 12 pairs of nerve emanating from brain)

Question 12

What are the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system

Answer 12

1. ) Somatic Nervous System: consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout skin, joins, and muscles.
2. ) Autonomic Nervous System: regulates heartbeats, respiration, digestion, and glandular activities. Helps regulate body temperatures (sweat, piloerections)

Question 13

What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system

Answer 13

1. ) Parasympathetic Nervous System: Main role is to conserve energy. Associated with resting and sleeping resting and sleeping states and acts to reduce heart rate and constrict bronchi. Also responsible for managing digestion by increasing peristalsis and exocrine secretion . Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter responsible for this systems response
2. ) Sympathetic Nervous System: Activated by stress including everything from mild stressors (i.e doing homework) to life or death scenarios. Closely associated with rage or fear reactions (fight or flight). It increases heart rate, redistributes blood to muscles of locomotion, increases blood glucose concentration, relaxes the bronchi, decreases digestion and peristalsis, dilates the eyes to maximize light intake, and releases epinephrine into the bloodstream

Question 14

What is Meninges and what do the distinct parts of it do

Answer 14

Thick three-layered sheath of connective tissue covering the brain. It protects it and anchors it to the skull. It also reabsorbs cerebrospinal fluid

1. ) Dura Mater: outer layer, connected directly to the skull
2. ) Arachonid Mater: is a fibrous weblike structure that makes up the middle layer
3. ) Pia mater: connects directly to the brain

Question 15

What is cerebrospinal fluid

Answer 15

Aquaeous solution secreted by specialized cells that line the ventricles (internal cavities) of the brain, helps to nourish and provide a cushion for the brain and spinal cord

Question 16

What are the three basic parts of the human brain

Answer 16

1.) Hindbrain: most primitive structure of the brain
2.) Midbrain: when combined with the hindbrain, they form the brain stem
3.) Forebrain: was developed later
The first two evolved first, are associated with basic survival, while the later par evolved last and is responsible for higher thinking

Question 17

What the forebrain (prosencephalon) and its major structures/responsibilities

Answer 17

Located above midbrain
associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, behavioral processes, emotions, and memory
Functions not necessary for survival but for intellectual/emotional capabilities
Prosencephalon divides into telencephalon (forms cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system) and the diencephalon (forms thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and penal gland) during prenatal development

Question 18

What is the midbrain (mesencephalon) and its major structures/responsibilities

Answer 18

Is located just above the hindbrain
Receives sensory and motor info from rest of body
Associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered auditory or visual stimuli
Superior colliculus: receives visual sensory input
Inferior colliculus: receives sensory info from auditory system, has role in reflexive reactions to loud noises

Question 19

What is the hindbrain (rhombencephalon) and the various structure’s responsibilities

Answer 19

Manages vital functions necessary for survival
Located where brain meets spinal cord
Controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes (sleeping, walking)
During embryonic development, rhombencephalon divides to form the myelencephalon (becomes medulla oblongata, responsible for breathing, heartrate, digestion) the pons is located above. contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla. Cerebellum at top of hindbrain, behind the pons, maintains posture, balance, and coordination (damage causes clumsiness, slurred words, and loss of balance, notably affected by alcohol)

Question 20

What are the methods used to map the brain

Answer 20

1. ) Brain lesions: researchers look for patients that exhibit damage to part coupled with loss of function, however lesions aren’t isolated to said part, with multiple damaged structures impairment could be linked to any damage so pinpointing is difficult
2. )Electroencephalogram (EEG): involves placing several electrodes on scalp, patterns of electrical activity is observed (research on sleep, seizures, and brain lesions use this method)
3. )Reginal cerebral blood flow (rCBF): detects brain activity based on blood flow to part of brain (assumption is more blood means more activity or responsibility)
4. ) Computer tomography (CT) scan or Computed axial tomography (CAT) scan: multiple x-rays taken at different angles, produces cross-section on tissue
5. ) Positron emission tomography (PET) scan: radioactive sugar injected and then its uptake is imaged
6. ) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): magnetic field interacts with hydrogen atoms to map hydrogen dense regions
7. ) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): same base technique for MRI, but measures changes associated with blood flow, used for neural activity

Question 21

What is the thalamus

Answer 21

Structure in forebrain that serves as relay station for incoming sensory info, including all senses except smell
After receiving the information, it sorts and transmits the information to the correct area of the cerebral cortex

Question 22

What is the hypothalamus and its subdivisions

Answer 22

Serves homeostatic functions, and is a key player in emotional experiences during high arousal states, aggressive behavior, and sexual behavior
Also serves endocrine functions, autonomic nervous system (hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior), homeostatic functions (metabolism, temperature, and water balance)
1.) Lateral hypothalamus (LH): hunger center, special receptors detect when body needs food/fluids, when destroyed will result in starvation
2.) Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH): satiety center, provides signals to stop eating, brain lesions in area lead to obesity
3.) Anterior Hypothalamus: controls sexual behavior. Damage results in permanent inhibition of sexual activity, also regulates sleep and body temp

Question 23

What is the positerior pituitary

Answer 23

Comprised of axonal projections from hypothalamus and is site for release for hypothalamic hormones antidiuretic hormone (ADH, aka vasopressin) and oxytocin

Question 24

what is the pineal gland

Answer 24

player in multiple biological rhythm)
Most notably secretes melatonin (hormone regulates circadian rhythm)
receives direct signals from retina for coordination for sunlight