Biology and Behavior Flashcards
-Genetic mutations and neuroscience
1
Q
Deletion Mutations
A
Occur when a large segment of DNA is lost from a chromosome. Small deletion mutations are considered frameshift mutations, described previously.
2
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Duplication mutations
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Occur when a segment of DNA is copied multiple times in the genome
3
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Inversion mutations
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Occur when a segment of DNA is reversed within the chromosome
4
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Insertion mutations
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Occur when a segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another. Small insertion mutations (including those where the inserted DNA is not from another chromosome) are considered frameshift mutations, as described previously
5
Q
Translocation mutations
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Occur when a segment of DNA from one chromosome is swapped with a segment of DNA from another chromosome
6
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Genetic leakage
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Flow of genes between species
7
Q
Divergent evolution
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Refers to the independent development of dissimilar characteristics in 2 or more lineages sharing a common ancestor
8
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Parallel evolution
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Refers to the process whereby related species evolve in similar ways for a long period of time in response to analogous environmental selection pressures
9
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Convergent evolution
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Refers to the independent development of similar characteristics in two or more lineages not sharing a recent common ancestor.
10
Q
Activated sympathetic nervous system
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- Increases heart rate
- Redistributes blood to muscles of locomotion
- Increases blood glucose concentration
- Relaxes the bronchi
- Decreases digestion and peristalsis
- Dilates the eyes to maximize light intake
- Releases epinephrine into the bloodstream
11
Q
Layers of the brain
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- Dura mater
- Arachnoid mater
- Pia mater
- Cerebrospinal fluid
12
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Ventricles
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Internal cavities of the brain
13
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Forebrain structures
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Cerebral cortex Basal ganglia Limbic system Thalamus Hypothalamus
14
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Cerebral cortex
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Complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
15
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Basal ganglia
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Movement
16
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Limbic System
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Emotion and memory
17
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Thalamus
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Sensory relay station
18
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Hypothalamus
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Hunger and thirst; emotion
19
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Inferior and superior colliculi
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Sensorimotor reflexes
20
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Cerebellum
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Refined motor movements
21
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Medulla oblongata
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Vital functioning (breathing, digestion)
22
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Reticular formation
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Arousal and alertness
23
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The Forebrain
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Associated with emotion and memory; it is the forebrain that has the greatest influence on human behavior
24
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CT (computed tomography)
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Multiple X-Rays are taken at different angles and processed by a computer to cross-sectional slice images of the tissue
25
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
In which a radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into the body, and its dispersion and uptake throughout the target tissue is imaged.
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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
Which uses a magnetic field to interact with hydrogen and map out hydrogen dense regions of the body
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fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
Which uses the same base technique as MRI, but specifically measures changes associated with blood flow. This is especially useful for monitoring neural activity, since increased blood flow in regions of the brain is typically coupled with neuronal activity.
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Functions of the Hypothalamus
Feeding
Fighting
Flighting
(Sexual) Functioning
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Lateral Hypothalamus
Referred to as the hunger center-LH triggers eating and drinking
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Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
"Satiety center"-provides signals to stop eating. Brain lesions in this area usually lead to obesity
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Anterior hypothalamus
Controls sexual behavior. When the anterior hypothalamus is stimulated, lab animals will mount anything. Damage to the anterior hypothalamus leads to permanent inhibition of sexual activity. The anterior hypothalamus also regulates sleep and body temperature.
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Basal ganglia
Coordinate muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information (via the extrapyramidal motor system)
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Limbic system
Comprises a group of interconnected structures looping around the central portion of the brain and is primarily associated with emotion and memory
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Septal nuclei
Contain one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain
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Amygdala
A structure that plays an important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors including fear and rage
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Hippocampus
Plays a vital role in learning and memory processes
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Lobes of the brain
```
F-POT:
Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal
```
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Anterograde Amnesia
Not being able to establish new long-term memories; memory for events that occurred before brain injury is usually intact
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Frontal lobe
Prefrontal cortex and the motor cortex
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Prefrontal cortex
Manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions
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Primary motor cortex
Located on the precentral gyrus (just in front of the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes), and initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles
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Dominant hemisphere
(usually the left) is primarily analytic in function, making it well-suited for managing details. For instance, language, logic, and math skills are all located in the dominant hemisphere.
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Broca's area
Language production
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Wernicke's area
Language comprehension-primarily driven by the dominant hemisphere
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Nondominant hemisphere
(usually the right) is associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing
-The nondominant hemisphere simultaneously processes the pieces of a stimulus and assembles them into a holistic image
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Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. In the peripheral nervous system, acetylcholine is used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles
- Central nervous system, acetylcholine has been linked to attention and arousal
- Loss of cholinergic neurons connecting with the hippocampus is associated with Alzheimer's disease, an illness resulting in progressive and incurable memory loss
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Catecholamines
Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine
| -Also classified as monoamines or biogenic amines
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Epinephrine (adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
Involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness. Promote the fight or flight response. Norepinephrine more commonly acts at a local level as a neurotransmitter, epinephrine is more often secreted from the adrenal medulla to act systemically as a hormone
-Low levels of norepinephrine are associated with depression; high levels are associated with anxiety and mania
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Dopamine
Catecholamine that plays an important role in movement and posture-High concentrations of dopamine are normally found in the basal ganglia, which help smooth movements and maintain postural stability
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Schizophrenia
Imbalances in dopamine transmission-dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
-Dopamine hypothesis argues that delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from an oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain
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Serotonin
Generally thought to play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming
- Thought to play a role in depression and mania.
- Oversupply of serotonin is thought to produce manic states; an undersupply is thought to produce depression
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GABA (y-aminobutyric acid)
Produces inhibitory post-synaptic potentials and is thought to play an important role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain
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Glycine
One of the twenty proteinogenic amino acids, but it also serves as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system by increasing chloride influx into the neuron.
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Glutamate
Also acts as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system-excitatory neurotransmitter
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Adrenal glands
Located on top of the kidneys and are divided into two parts: adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex
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Adrenal medulla
Releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of the sympathetic nervous system
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Adrenal cortex
Produces many hormones called corticosteroids, including the stress hormone cortisol
-Also contributes to sexual functioning by producing sex hormones such as testosterone and estrogen
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Photoreceptors
Respond to electromagnetic waves in the visible spectrum (sight)
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Hair cells
Respond to movement of fluid in the inner ear structures (hearing, rotational and linear acceleration)
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Nociceptors
Respond to painful or noxious stimuli (somatosensation)
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Thermoreceptors
Respond to changes in temperature (thermosensation)
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Osmoreceptors
Respond to the osmolarity of the blood (water homeostasis)
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Olfactory receptors
Respond to volatile compounds (smell)
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Taste receptors
Respond to dissolved compounds (taste)
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Signal detection theory
Changes in our perception of the same stimuli depending on both internal (psychological) and external (environmental) context
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Sclera
White of th eye
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The eye is supplied with nutrients by two sets of blood vessels
Choroidal vessels, a complex intermingling of blood vessels between the sclera and the retina, and the retinal vessels
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Retina
Innermost layer of the eye, which contains the actual photoreceptors that transduce light into electrical information the brain can process
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Cornea
A clear, domelike window in the front of the eye, which gathers and focuses the incoming light
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Iris
Composed of two muscles: the dilator pupillae, which opens the pupil under sympathetic stimulation; the constrictor pupillae, which constricts the pupil under parasympathetic stimulation
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Retina
Back of the eye and is like a screen consisting of neural elements and blood vessels
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Duplexity or duplicity theory of vision
The retina contains two kinds of photoreceptors: those specialized for light-and-dark detection and those specialized for color detection
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Cones
Used for color vision and to sense fine details
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Rods
More functional and only allow sensation of light and dark because they all contain a single pigment called rhodopsin. Rods have low sensitivity to details and are not involved in color vision, but permit night vision
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Parallel processing
The ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion
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Pacinian corpuscles
Respond to deep pressure and vibration
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Meissner corpuscles
Respond to light touch
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Merkel cells (discs)
Respond to deep pressure and texture
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Ruffini endings
Respond to stretch
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Free nerve endings
Respond to pain and temperature
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Kinesthetic sense/Proprioception
Refers to the ability to tell where one's body is in space
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Pacinian corpuscles
Respond to deep pressure and vibration
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Meissner corpuscls
Respond to light touch
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Merkel cells (discs)
Respond to deep pressure and texture
85
Ruffini endings
Respond to stretch
86
Free nerve endings
Respond to pain and temperature
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Law of proximity
Elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit
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Law of similarity
Objects that are similar tend to be grouped together
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Law of good continuation
Elements that appear to follow in the same pathway tend be grouped together
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Subjective contours
Have to do with perceiving contours and shapes that are not actually present in the stimulus
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Law of closure
Says that when space is enclosed by a contour it tends to be perceived as a complete figure
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Positive reinforcers
Increase a behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior
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Negative reinforcers
Act similarly in that they increase the frequency of a behavior, but they do so by removing something unpleasant
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Positive punishment
Adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior
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Negative punishment
Reduction of a behavior when a stimulus is removed
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Fixed ratio (FR) schedules
Reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior
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Continuous reinforcement
Is a fixed ratio schedule in which the behavior is rewarded every time it is performed
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Variable ratio schedules
Reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior, but such that the average number of performances to receive a reward is relatively constant
-Works the fastest for learning a new behavior, and is also the most resistant to extinction
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Fixed interval (FI) schedules
Reinforce the first instance of behavior after a specified time period has elapsed
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Variable interval (VI) schedules
Reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time
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Shaping
Process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors
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Latent learning
Learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced
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Piaget's stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete operational
Formal operational
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Activities of daily living
Eating, bathing, toileting, dressing, and ambulation
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Dementia
Often begins with impaired memory, but later progresses to impaired judgement and confusion
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Delirium
Rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical (non-psychological) causes. It can be caused by a variety of issues, including electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, a drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, and pain
