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Biology A2 Exam > Biology > Flashcards

Biology Flashcards

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0
Q

What cross-linking agents can be used in covalent bonding?

A

Gluteraldehyde or Sepharose

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1
Q

What is an advantage and a disadvantage of Covalent Bonding?

A

Little leakage due to strong covalent bonds

Not as high reaction rates

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2
Q

What is Entrapment?

A

Enzymes are trapped in their natural state in a gel bead or a network of cellulose fibres

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3
Q

Advantages of Artificial Animal Cloning

A

> Animals with desired characteristics can be produced

> Rare species can be preserved

> Genetically modified animals can be quickly reproduced

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4
Q

Disadvantages of Artificial Animal Cloning

A

> Animals welfare not always met- animals born with problems

> Not enough genetic diversity, change in environment or new disease can be bad

> Uncertain whether cloned offspring will remain healthy long term

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5
Q

What are the methods of immobilising enzymes?

A

> Adsorption
Covalent Bonding
Entrapment
Membrane Seperation

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6
Q

What is Adsorption?

A

Enzyme molecules are mixed with immobilising support and they bind together by ionic bonds and hydrophobic interactions

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7
Q

What is an advantage and disadvantage of Adsorption?

A

High amounts of leakage as bonds not strong

High reaction rates as active site not changed and displayed well

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8
Q

What is the Covalent Bonding method?

A

Enzyme molecules and immobilising support are bonded covalently using a cross linking agent

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9
Q

What do you do in Somatic Gene Therapy in comparison to Germ line Gene Therapy?

A

> Use/Change body cells instead of gametes

> Not passed on to offspring

> Cures disease in one individual

> Treatment is short-lived and must be repeated

> No ethical issues

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10
Q

In Adsorption what immobilising supports (called Adsorbing agents) can be used?

A

> Porous Carbon
Glass Beads
Clay
Resins

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11
Q

What is a disadvantage of Entrapment?

A

Reaction rates are reduced

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12
Q

What is Membrane Seperation?

A

Use of partially permeable membrane, where substrate is passed along one side and it is small enough to fit through pp membrane and react with enzyme on other side. Product formed is small enough to pass back through to be collected

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13
Q

What are the advantages of Immobilising Enzymes?

A

> Product not present with enzyme, low downstream processing cost

> Enzymes immediately available for reuse

> More stable because have immobilising matrix to protect the enzyme

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14
Q

What is downstream processing?

A

The extraction of enzyme from the fermentation mixture

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15
Q

What are the disadvantages of Immobilising Enzymes?

A

> More time consuming and expensive

> Less active form of enzyme as it doesn’t mix freely with substrate

> Contamination would be costly as whole system would have to be stopped

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16
Q

The method for extracting enzyme from the fermentation process to purify the product

A

Downstream Processing

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17
Q

What is the normal process for enzyme controlled reactions?

A

The use of a isolated enzyme which when mixed with substrate under suitable conditions forms enzyme-substrate complexes. Product needs to be purified which makes this a costly process. This is why immobilised enzymes are used.

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18
Q

How do unwanted microorganisms affect the nutrient medium?

A

> Produce toxic chemicals

> Reduce yield of useful products

> May spoil the product

> May destroy the product/culture microorganism

> Compete for space and nutrients

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19
Q

What are the aseptic techniques for laboratory/starter culture level biotechnology?

A

> Sterilise equipment before and after use

> Work carried out in fume cupboard/ laminar flow cabinet so air circulation carries away airborne contaminants

> Microorganism culture kept closed & away from bench surface when in use

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20
Q

Why are reaction rates reduced in Entrapment?

A

Substrate molecules need to pass trapping barrier so active sites of enzyme are less accessible

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21
Q

What are the aseptic techniques for large-scale culture level biotechnology?

A

> Fermenter surface made of polished stainless steel-prevents microbes sticking to surface

> Sterilise nutrient media-prevents introduction of contaminants

> Washing and steam-cleaning fermenter and pipes- removes excess nutrients and kills microorganisms

> Fine filters on inlets & outlets- controls movement of microorganisms

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22
Q

What is Asepsis?

A

The absence of unwanted microorganisms

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23
Q

What is an aseptic technique?

A

Any measure taken in a biotechnological process to ensure unwanted microorganisms do not contaminate the culture or the products

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24
Q

What is a continuous culture?

A

The method of fermentation whereby nutrients are added and product removed continuously at regular intervals

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25
Q

What is a batch culture?

A

Fermentation process whereby a starter population of microorganisms is combined with a specific quantity of nutrient solution and allowed to grow for a fixed period of time

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26
Q

The order of the standard growth curve?

A

1) Lag phase
2) Log phase
3) Stationary phase
4) Decline phase

27
Q

What is a culture?

A

It is the growth of microorganisms on a nutrient medium (liquid or solid medium)

28
Q

What is the lag phase?

A

Where the organisms are adjusting to surroundings. The cells are active but not reproducing.

29
Q

What is the log phase?

A

This is when population grows exponentially as there is lots of space and nutrients.

30
Q

What is the stationary phase?

A

This is when organism growth rate is the same as death rate so no overall population change occurs. Nutrient levels have decreased and waste products built up.

31
Q

What is the carrying capacity in a open system?

A

The stationary phase

32
Q

What is the decline phase?

A

Death rate exceeds growth rate due to nutrient exhaustion and toxic waste products. In closed system organisms will eventually die.

33
Q

What is a primary metabolite?

A

A substance produced by an organism as a part of its normal growth

Eg/ proteins, enzymes

34
Q

What is a secondary metabolite?

A

A substance produced by an organism which is not a part of its normal growth.

35
Q

What production matches growth of population?

A

Primary metabolite production

36
Q

How does the production of primary metabolites compare to the growth of a population?

A

It matches it

37
Q

How does the production of secondary metabolites compare to the growth of a population?

A

It begins after the log phase

38
Q

What do all microorganisms produce?

A

Primary Metabolites

39
Q

What do few microorganisms produce?

A

Secondary Metabolites

40
Q

What are the applications of comparative gene mapping?

A

> Identification of important life genes which code for specific proteins

> Identification of genes responsible for causing the disease by comparing genomes of pathogenic and non-pathogenic organisms

> Comparing DNA/genes to show evolutionary relationships-more sequences the same the more closely related

> Modelling the effects of changes to DNA/genes

> Analysis of DNA to find mutant alleles or alleles with increased risk of diesease

41
Q

What are techniques used for understanding structure and role of DNA?

A

DNA profiling
Gene Sequencing
Genetic Engineering
Gene Therapy

42
Q

What enzyme cuts DNA into smaller fragments?

A

Restriction Endonuclease

43
Q

What process involves separating DNA fragments by size?

A

Electrophoresis

44
Q

What process involves replicating DNA fragments to produce multiple copies?

A

Polymerase Chain Reaction

45
Q

What enzyme is used to seal together DNA fragments?

A

DNA Ligase

46
Q

What are the barriers which split large population groups into sub-groups?

A

Geographical Barriers
Seasonal Barriers
Reproductive Mechanisms

47
Q

What occurs in small populations of organisms?

A

Inbreeding can occur when the gene pool is really small due to alleles getting eliminated

48
Q

What is genetic drift?

A

The random fluctuation of allele frequency in a population which may lead to the elimination of alleles in a population.

49
Q

How does genetic drift affect a population?

A

It reduces the genetic variation of a population which might reduce its ability to survive in a new environment

50
Q

What is a selection pressure?

A

An environmental factor that confers greater chances of survival to reproductive ages on some members of the population

51
Q

What is stabilising selection?

A

A type of natural selection in which allele and genotype frequency stays the same within a population because the are already well adapted to the environment

52
Q

What is directional selection?

A

A type of natural selection where the environment changes so a change in allele frequency occurs in the gene pool as a different phenotype gains selective advantage in the new environment

53
Q

What are the commercial uses of Gibberellins?

A

Fruit Production
Brewing
Sugar Production
Plant Breeding

54
Q

What are Gibberellins role in fruit production?

A

> They delay senescence in citrus fruits, allowing fruits to be available longer in shops

> Make apples elongate to improve their shape

> Allows grape stem to elongate making more space for growth of grapes

55
Q

How can Gibberellins be used in plant breeding?

A

Gibberellins can be used to speed up seed formation so generations of species can be reproduced quickly

56
Q

What are cytokinins used for?

A

> They delay leaf senescence

> They promote bud and shoot growth in tissue culture cloning, short shoot produced has lots of side branches which can be split into small plants

57
Q

How is ethene used commercially?

A

> Speed up fruit ripening eg/ apples

> Promote fruit drop eg/ cherry

> Promote female expression in cucumber to increase yield

> Promote lateral growth in some plants

58
Q

How could reducing ethene’s effect be useful?

A

Prevent fruit ripening so fruits can be stored for longer

59
Q

What can artificial auxins be used for?

A

> Prevent leaf and fruit drop

> Promote flowering or in high concentrations promote fruit drop

60
Q

What can beta-carotene be used for?

A

It is a derivative known as a precursor for Vitamin A. It can be converted to Vitamin A in the gut.

61
Q

How has rice been engineered into Golden Rice?

A

1) Genes for beta-carotene production in endosperm (grain) are switched off
2) Two genes are inserted into the rice genome (near promoter genes for endosperm development) which code for 2 enzymes; Phytoene synthetase & Crt1 enzyme
3) Phytoene synthetase enzyme converts precursor molecules into phytoene
4) Crt1 enzyme converts phytoene into lycopene
5) Various other enzymes already in endosperm covert lycopene into beta-carotene and other carotenoid molecules

62
Q

What is the difference between Splitting Embryos in respect to Nuclear Transfer?

A

Embryo is clone of original zygote instead of adult organism

Nucleus comes from an egg fertilised in vitro instead of an adult

The characteristics are not exactly known but offspring all have same ones

Cellular components derived from zygote so mitochondria DNA is identical, where as mitochondria DNA not same in Nuclear Transfer

63
Q

What do the calcium ions bind to?

A

Troponin

64
Q

How many polypeptide does a troponin complex have and what do they bind to?

A

It has three polypeptides;
1 to actin
1 to tropomyosin
1 to calcium ions

65
Q

What are the four types of meristems?

A

Apical Meristems: located in tips of roots and shoots

Lateral Bud Meristems: found in buds, gives rise to side shoots

Lateral Meristems: found in a cylinder near the outside of roots and shoots, makes them wider

Intercalary Meristem: located between nodes and makes shoots longer

66
Q

What do auxins do in the plant?

A

Causes cell elongation which is shoot growth

Biology A2 Exam (1 decks)

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