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COMBINED SCIENCE GCSE > BIOLOGY > Flashcards

BIOLOGY Flashcards

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1
Q

What does a nucleus do in a cell?

A

It controls the cell’s activities and contains the genetic material for cellular reproduction.

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2
Q

What is the function of cytoplasm?

A

It’s where most of the chemical reactions take place in a cell

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3
Q

What does the cell membrane do?

A

It controls what comes in and goes out of a cell.

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4
Q

What do mitochondria do?

A

Sub-cellular structures where aerobic respiration takes place

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5
Q

What do ribosomes do?

A

Ribosomes synthesise proteins

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6
Q

What is a cell wall made of?

A

Cell walls are plants’ cells - they are made of cellulose to strengthen the cell.

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7
Q

What is the function of chloroplasts?

A

Chloroplasts - found in plant cells - make glucose (food) for the plant through photosynthesis.

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8
Q

Name the two main kinds of cell

A

Prokaryotic cells (bacterial) Eukaryotic cells (plant, animal, fungal)

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9
Q

What are some of the main differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

A

Prokaryotic cells are: Smaller Genetic material is not in a nucleus Genetic material is in a single DNA loop and there may be one or more small rings of DNA called PLASMIDS They do not contain mitochondria or chloroplasts

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10
Q

What kind of shapes can bacteria have?

A

Spherical

Spiral

Rod

Curved rod

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11
Q

What are flagella?

A

Tails on cells to move them around (e.g. sperm cells or bacteria)

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12
Q

Explain the nature of plasmids

A

They are loops of DNA found in bacteria. They can be transferred from one cell to another, allowing bacteria to pass genes around. They are also useful for scientists to insert genes into different bacteria.

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13
Q

Define ‘resolution’ in the context of microscopes

A

The ability to discern more than one object - e.g., cells can’t be seen with the naked eye, but under a microscope, they begin to be ‘resolved’.

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14
Q

What do electron microscopes do?

A

They pass electrons through a specimen being ‘viewed’ giving a much clearer image.

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15
Q

What is the formula for calculating magnification?

A

Magnification = size of image/size of real object

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16
Q

What sub cellular structure controls activities in the cell?

A

Nucleus

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17
Q

Where are proteins made in a cell?

A

On the ribosomes

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18
Q

Note three structures found in plant cells that are not found in animal cells

A

Cell wall Chloroplasts Permanent vacuole

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19
Q

What is the function of cell sap?

A

To support the cell - giving strength to non-woody plants.

Contains the materials needed for the plant’s health, e.g., sugars, amino acids, wastes, mineral salts.

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20
Q

Where is DNA found in bacteria?

A

Floating plasmids

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21
Q

Arrange in order of size (largest to smallest) bacterium, liver cell, nucleus, ribosome

A

Liver cell Nucleus Bacterium Ribosome

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22
Q

What is a micrometre?

A

1x10-6(m)

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23
Q

What is an ecosystem

A

All the organisms living in a habitat and all the non-living parts of that habitat

So - snails and rocks!

polar bears and ice!

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24
Q

Define biological competition

A

Living species trying to get enough resources to survive

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25
Q

What is interdependence?

A

Different species relying on each other for food, shelter, pollnation, seed dispersal…

If one species is removed, it can affect the whole community.

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26
Q

Define abiotic

A

non-living

“a”- as a prefix means “without” in Greek

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27
Q

Define biotic

A

“Living”

bios in Greek means life.

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28
Q

Define four abiotic factors that affect living communities

A

light intensity

temperature

moisture levels

soil pH and mineral content

wind intensity and direction

C02 levels for plants

O2 levels for animals

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29
Q

Define three biotic factors that can affect a habitat

A

Changes in food availability

Change in number of predators

Introduction of pathogens/diseases

One species outcompeting another

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30
Q

How does a biologist define a population

A

A group of organisms of one species living in a habitat

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31
Q

What are “adaptations”?

A

Features that organism have that enable them to survive in their normal conditions

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32
Q
A
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33
Q

What are extremophiles?

A

Organisms that live in extreme conditions

  • temperature
  • pressure
  • salt concentrations

Eg. bacteria living on glaciers or near deep sea vents

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34
Q

What is a transect line used for?

A

A line placed across a field on which a quadrat is placed to count species etc

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35
Q

What is a stable community to a biologist?

A

All species and environment factors are in balance so relevant population numbers are stable

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36
Q

Describe a chromosome

A

The nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes made of DNA

Each chromosome carries hundreds of genes.

In body cells, chromosomes are found in pairs with one chromosome coming from each parent.

Humans have 23 pairs,

Dogs have 30 pairs.

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37
Q

Describe genes

A

Genes contain the code to make different proteins and so control the development of different characteristics.

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38
Q

Describe the cell cycle

A

DNA is copied and new chromosomes are made

Cell undergoes mitosis

Each cell grows and makes new sub-cellular structures

DNA is copied…

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39
Q

Describe mitosis

A

A cell grows and increases the number of sub-cellular structures (ribosomes, mitochondria)

The DNA replicates to form two copies of each chromosome

During mitosis:

one set of chromosomes is pulled to each end of the cell

the nucleus divides

the cytoplasm and cell memberanes split to form identical cells

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40
Q

Why is mitosis important?

A

It makes new cells for the organism

  • growth
  • repair
  • asexual reproduction
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41
Q

What are stem cells?

A

Undifferentiated cells

  • they have not yet become ‘specialised’

They are found in embryos, umbilical cords (embryonic stem cells),

and some organs and tissues (adult stem cells)

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42
Q

What are stem cells used for?

A
  • treating conditions where cells are damaged (paralysis, diabetes)
  • replace damaged cells
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43
Q

What is therapeutic cloning?

A

Use of patient’s own stem cells for replacing damaged cells/tissues

  • no risk of rejection
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44
Q

What are meristems and why may they be useful?

A

Special areas in plants that house their stem cells

  • easy for cloning the plant
  • help clone nearly extinct species

GM crops bred to resist disease

-

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45
Q

Define (cellular) diffusion

Why does it happen?

A

The net movement of particules across cell membranes from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

Because particles move randomly an spread out

E.g., O2 and CO2

Urea from cells into blood

DIgested food molecules into blood

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46
Q

What factors affect (cellular) diffusion?

A

Concentration gradient

Temperature

(think particle theory - more energy, more movement)

Surface area of the membrane

*Unicellular organisms have large surface area to volume ratio allowing molecules to easily diffuse

*Multicellular organisms have low surface area to volume ratio, so they have developed specialised cells to help with diffusion: e.g, small intestines, lungs - large surface area, moist.

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47
Q

What maintains the concentration gradient in animals?

A

Rich blood supply

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48
Q

What speeds up gaseous exchange in plants

(i.e., keeps the concentration gradient diffusion working?)

A

Ventilation

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49
Q

Define osmosis

A

The diffusion of water from a dilute solutoin to a concentrated solution through a semipermeable membrane

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50
Q

Explain (cellular) active transportation

A

When substances are moved against a concentration gradient

  • this requires energy

E.g., mineral ions brought in from the soil into root hair cells

and sugar molecules from the lower concentration in the gut into the blood stream

**active transport stops in the absence of oxygen or in the presence of metabolic poisons such as cynanide, arsenic, belladonna, and strychnine

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51
Q

What happens when cells differentiate?

A
  • may change shape
  • have different sub-cellular structures to assist in its specific functions
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52
Q

Name some specialist cells

A

ANIMAL

Nerve cells

Muscle cells

Red blood cells

PLANT

Root hair cells

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53
Q

Draw and name the main parts of a motor neuron

A
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54
Q

Draw an name the main parts of a sperm cell

A
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55
Q

Draw and label the main parts of a muscle cell

A
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56
Q

Describe xylem cells

A

Arranged end to end, end walls break down to form hollow tubes

Cell walls are strengthened by lignin

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57
Q

Describe phloem cells

A

End walls allow sugars through but support the tubes

Arranged end to end into tubes

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58
Q

Compare xylem and phloem cells graphically

A
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59
Q

Draw and label a root hair cell

A
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60
Q

What are enzymes?

(four points)

A

Biological catalysts that speed up reactions in living organisms.

They are large proteins and have an active site inside a space

Enzymes do specific reactions

And work best at optimum temperatures and pH levels

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61
Q

What is tissue?

A

Group of cells with a similar structure and function

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62
Q

What is an organ?

A

Group of diiferent tissues working together to perform a specific job

E.g. stomach contains muscle tissue, glandular tissues (secrete juices), and epithelial (covering) tissue

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63
Q

What is an organ system?

A

Several organs working together to perform a broader function

E.g., Digestive system contains - mouth, oesophagus, stomach, smaller intestine, larger intestine, rectum and anus - and accessories, liver, gall bladder and pancreas.

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64
Q

Define an organism

A

A collection of organ systems that make up an living entity

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65
Q

What is denaturing?

A

When high temperatures or extreme acidic/alkline levels disrupt enzymes such that they denature (fall apart)

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66
Q

What is the “lock and key” theory of enzymes?

A

A model that explains how enzymes seem to work

  • the chemical that reacts is the substrate (the key)
  • it fits into the enzymes active site (the lock)

Emil Fischer (1894!!)

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67
Q

Name four digestive enzymes and their functions

A

Protease - breaks down proteins/amino acide: produced in stomach, pancreas and small intestine

Lipase - breaks down fats/oils into fatty acids and glcyerol: produced in pancreas and small intestine

Carbohydrase - breaks down carbohydrates

Amylase - breaks down starches into sugar (maltose): produced in salivary glands and pancrease

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68
Q

What is bile and where is it made?

A

Bile is an alkaline liquid to neutralise stomach acids,

Bile also emulsifies fats to increase their surface area

Both of which enables enzymes to work quicker on them

It is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder

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69
Q

What is the function of the epidermis on a leaf?

A

Epidermis - ‘top layer of skin’ - covers the outer surfaces of the plant for protection

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70
Q

What happens in the pallisade mesophyll in a leaf?

A

It’s the main site for photosynthesis

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71
Q

What is the function of spongy mesophyll in a leaf?

A

It has air spaces to all gases to diffuse through the leaf

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72
Q

What do xylem vessels do in a leaf?

A

They transport minerals and water from the roots and also help support the plant.

“Reach for the xy…”

xy rhymes with sky

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73
Q

What do phloem vessels do in a plant?

A

They transport dissolved sugars through the plant (from leaves downward)

This is called translocation

phloe = flow down

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74
Q

What is meristem tissue in a plant?

A

Meristem tissue is found at the tips of the roots and shoots where new cells are produced for root growth

75
Q

Is a leaf a plant organ?

A

Yes

76
Q

What process describes how water enters plant root cells?

A

Osmosis

77
Q

Through which cells does water evaporate and diffuse out of a plant

A

Stomata (small pores)

78
Q

What term is used to describe the loss of water from leaves?

A

transpiration

79
Q

What factors affect transpiration?

A
  • Temperature (higher = more transpiration)
  • Wind (faster air flow = higher rate of evaporation)
  • Light (more light, stomata open more)
  • Humidity (increase = less transpiration as concentration gradient for diffusion of water into the air is lower)
    *
80
Q

What is the function of guard cells in a plant?

A

They open and close stomata

81
Q

why are stomata closed at night?

A

They close because carbon dioxide is not needed for photosynthesis, so closing the stigmata reduces water loss.

82
Q

Explain how guard cells work

A
  1. When water is plentiful the guard cells take up water and become turgid (swollen).
  2. This causes the stigmata to open.
  3. So gases for photosynthesis are free to move in and out of the stigmata along with water from transpiration.
  4. BUT when water is scarce losing water makes this tomato change shape and close.
  5. This stops the plants from losing water through transpiration.
83
Q

What is translocation?

A

The movement of food (dissolved sugars) through the phloem tissue in a plant.

84
Q

What is a pathogen?

A

Microorganisms that cause infectious (communicable) diseases

85
Q

How are pathogens spread?

A

Direct contact

Water

Air

Vectors (other organisms that carry the pathogen which don’t get the disease themselves)

86
Q

How can the spread of infectious diseases be hindered?

A
  1. Hygiene
  2. Increasing immunity through diet/gut flora (post GCSE answer!)
  3. Destroying vectors
  4. Isolating infected persons
  5. Vaccines (potentially - side effects/increased viral resistance)
87
Q

Name some viral diseases

A

Measles

Human immunodeficiency HIV -> can cause AIDS

Human papilloma virus HPV

Polio

Shingles

Chicken Pox

Common cold

Influenza

Rabies

Hepatitis

Warts

PLANTS

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)

88
Q

How do bacterial pathogens affect healthy cells?

A

They can damage cells directly

or they produce toxins that damage tissues

89
Q

Explain how salmonella is introduced and affects the body

A

1) It is a bacterial infection
2) It is ingested from food (chickens, eggs) that is not cooked properly or prepared unhygienically
3) The bacteria secrete toxins that can cause fever, diarrhoea

* potential defence: vaccinating chickens.

90
Q

How is gonorrhea spread and what are its symptoms?

A

Bacteria transmitted sexually

Thick yellow/green discharge from the vaine/penis with pain urinating

Treated with penicillin but evidence of resistance

Avoidance/protection: abstinence/condoms

91
Q

What are protists?

What widespread disease (which calls more people than any other on the planet) is due to protists?

A

Single celled eukaryotic organisms

Malaria

The protist uses a specific mosquito which passes it into human blood upon sucking blood.

Malaria causes fever and can be fatal.

Prevention is with nets around the bed, although it seems that people of African genes have a greater immunity than Europeans say.

92
Q

What kind of disease is Rose Black Spot?

A

It’s fungal.

Fungal spores are carried on the wind to affect plants.

The infected leaves develop black spots, turn yellow and drop off early.

A decrease in foliage causes the plant to not grow as fast as photosythesis is reduced.

Treated with fungicides and burning affected material.

93
Q

What are pathogens?

A

Microorganisms that enter the body and cause disease

94
Q

What are communicable diseases?

A

Diseases that can easily spread

95
Q

What are bacteria?

A

Very small cells- reproduce rapidly

96
Q

Are viruses cells?

A

No- they’re 1/100th the size of a bacterium

97
Q

What do viruses do?

A

Live inside cells, use cells machinery to replicate then burst releasing virus

98
Q

What do viruses do to make you feel ill?

A

Cell damage

99
Q

What are Protists?

A

Single celled eukaryotes

100
Q

What are parasites transferred by?

A

A vector

101
Q

What is hyphae?

A

A thread like structure of fungi

102
Q

What do hyphae do?

A

Grow and penetrate human skin and the surface of plants causing disease

103
Q

What are the three ways pathogens can be spread?

A

Water, Air and Direct Contact

104
Q

Name 3 viral diseases

A

Measles, HIV and tobacco mosaic virus

105
Q

What are the symptoms of measles?

A

Red skin rash and signs of a fever

106
Q

How is measles spread?

A

Droplets- sneezes or cough

107
Q

How is HIV spread?

A

Sexual contact or bodily fluids (blood)

108
Q

What are the symptoms of HIV?

A

Flu like symptoms

109
Q

What time of cells does HIV attack?

A

Immune cells

110
Q

What does TMV affect?

A

Plants

111
Q

TMV symptoms on a plant?

A

Mosaic pattern of leaves and discoloured

112
Q

Why can’t TMV infected plant carry out photosynthesis?

A

Because of the discolouration

113
Q

Name a fungal disease?

A

Rose black spot

114
Q

What does rose black spot do to plants?

A

Cause black spots on rose plants and leaves drop off

115
Q

How does rose black spot spread?

A

Through water or wind

116
Q

Name a diseased cause by a protist?

A

Malaria

117
Q

What vector carries malaria?

A

Mosquito

118
Q

How can people be protected from malaria?

A

Insecticides and mosquito nets

119
Q

Name 2 bacterial diseases

A

Salmonella and Gonorrhea

120
Q

What is salmonella?

A

Type of bacteria that causes food poisoning

121
Q

What are the symptoms of salmonella?

A

Fever ,stomach cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea

122
Q

How can you get salmonella?

A

Eating food that has been contaminated with salmonella bacteria

123
Q

How is salmonella prevented?

A

Poultry are given vaccinations against salmonella

124
Q

What is Gonorrhoea?

A

Sexually transmitted disease

125
Q

Symptoms of Gonorrhoea?

A

Pain when urinating, thick yellow discharge

126
Q

How is Gonorrhoea prevented?

A

Antibiotics and barrier methods when having sex (comdoms)

127
Q

4 ways spread of disease can be reduced

A

Being hygienic, destroying vectors, isolating infected individuals , vaccination

128
Q

The largest organ that helps acts as a barrier is?

A

Skin

129
Q

What in your nose trap particles that could contain pathogens?

A

Hair and mucus

130
Q

What does the stomach produce to kill pathogens?

A

Hydrochloric acid

131
Q

What kicks in if pathogens make it into your body?

A

Immune system

132
Q

What is the most important part of your immune system?

A

White blood cells

133
Q

Name 3 ways white blood cells attack invading microbes?

A

Consuming them(phagocytosis), Producing antibodies, producing antitoxins

134
Q

What are in vaccinations?

A

Small amounts of dead or inactive pathogens

135
Q

What does the MMR vaccine contain?

A

Measles, mumps and rubella

136
Q

Pros of a vaccine

A

Control lots of diseases that were common, prevents epidemics

137
Q

Cons of a vaccine

A

Don’t always work, can have a bad reaction

138
Q

What drug relieves pain?

A

Pain killers (aspirin, paracetamol)

139
Q

What kills bacteria?

A

Antibiotics

140
Q

2 ways bacteria could be resistant to antibiotics

A

Bacteria mutate or if you have an infection

141
Q

What are the resistant bacteria called?

A

Resistant strain

142
Q

What can the resistant strain do to the body?

A

Cause a serious infection that can’t be treated by antibiotics

143
Q

How can doctors slow down the rate of resistant strains?

A

Not to over prescribe antibiotics

144
Q

Name the drug that comes from willow

A

Aspirin

145
Q

Name the drug that comes from foxgloves

A

Digitalis

146
Q

Who discovered penicillin

A

Alexander Fleming

147
Q

Three stages of drug testing

A

Human cells and tissues, 2 live animals, human volunteers in a clinical trial

148
Q

What produces antibodies?

A

B-lymphocytes

149
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies produced from?

A

Lots of clones of white blood cells

150
Q

What do tumor cells do?

A

Divide lots so they can be grown easily

151
Q

B-lymphocytes and tumor cells bind to make what?

A

Hybridoma cell

152
Q

What do hybridoma produce?

A

Monoclonal antibodies

153
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies useful?

A

They target a specific cell

154
Q

Name something monoclonal antibodies are used in?

A

Pregnancy tests , treat diseases (cancer), research (measure hormone levels)

155
Q

Side effects of monoclonal antibodies?

A

Fever, vomiting and low blood pressure

156
Q

3 diseases plants get?

A

Bacterial, viral and fungal

157
Q

Signs a plant has a disease

A

Stunted growth, spots on leaves, patches of decay, abnormal growth, malformed stems, discolouration

158
Q

How can you identify a plants disease?

A

Gardening manual or internet, taking to a laboratory, testing kits

159
Q

What are plants physical defences

A

Waxy Cuticle, cell walls (contain cellulose), dead cells around stems

160
Q

What are plants chemical defences?

A

Antibacterial chemicals (mint plant and witch hazel), produce poisons (deadly nightshade and foxglove)

161
Q

What are plants mechanical defences?

A

Thorns and hairs, leaves that droop or curl, plants mimic other organisms (ice plant family- look like stones)

162
Q

which side of the heart does de-oxygenated blood enter?

A

the right side

163
Q

what if the heart mainly made of?

A

muscle tissue

164
Q

how does the heart keep the blood flowing in the right direction?

A

valves to stop back flow

165
Q

through which artery does oxygenated blood leave?

A

aorta

166
Q

how do muscles in the heart keep your resting heart rate controlled?

A

producing electrical impulses which spread through the heart causing them to contract

167
Q

what are two features of an artery?

A
  1. walls are strong and elastic so it can cope with high pressure 2. thick walls compared to the lumen
168
Q

what are two features of a capillary?

A

1.permiable walls so substances can diffuse in and out 2. supply cells with food and oxygen and take away waste like CO2

169
Q

what are three features of a vein?

A
  1. thin walls because blood at lower pressure 2. large lumento help blood flow 3. valves to keep blood flowing in right direction
170
Q

what is the main function of red blood cells?

A

to carry oxygen around the body

171
Q

what is the main function of white blood cells?

A

to defend against infection

172
Q

what is the main funtion of platelets?

A

to help blood clot

173
Q

what is conorary heart disease?

A

the conorary arterie gets blocked by layers of fatty material building up so less oxygen is supplied to the heart

174
Q

what are stents used for?

A

tubes inserted inside arteries to keep them open and allow blood to flow

175
Q

what are statins used for?

A

drugs that reduce amount of ‘bad’ cholesterol in your bloodstream

176
Q

what procedures can be done if there is a heart faliure?

A

transplants of the whole heart or valves

177
Q

what can be used when a lot of blood is lost?

A

artificial blood like a salt solution or a blood transfusion

178
Q

what are non communicable diseases?

A

diseases that cannot spread between people or animals and people

179
Q

Name three types of non comunicable diseases?

A

asthma, cancer and coronary heart disease

180
Q

what are 3 factors that can effect your health?

A

diet, stress and life style choices (including alcohol, drugs, promiscous sex, poverty)

181
Q

what are 4 risk factors that directly cause a disease?

A
  1. smoking 2.obesity 3.alcohol 4.exposure to certain radiation
182
Q

what causes cancer?

A

uncontrolled cell growth and division which forms a tumour

183
Q

what are two types of cancer?

A

1.benign- stays in one place and isnt cancerous 2. malignant-tumour grows and spreads to neighbouring tissues, cancerous

184
Q
A

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