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Biology Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are carbohydrates, fats and proteins used by the body to do

A

Release energy and to build cells

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2
Q

What is needed for healthy functioning of the body

A

Mineral ions and vitamins in a small amount

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3
Q

When is a person malnourished

A

If they don’t have a balanced diet

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4
Q

What can malnourishment lead to

A

Being underweight or overweight

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5
Q

What can an unbalanced diet lead to

A

Deficiency diseases or conditions such as Type II diabetes

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6
Q

When does a person lose mass

A

When the energy content of the food taken in is less than the amount of energy expended by the body

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7
Q

What is metabolic rate

A

The rate at which all the chemical reactions in the cells of your body are carried out

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8
Q

How can you increase the amount of energy expended by the body

A

Through exercise

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9
Q

What does the metabolic rate vary with

A

The amount of activity you do and the proportion of muscle to fat in your body

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10
Q

What can metabolic rate be affected by

A

Inherited factors

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11
Q

What can inherited factors affect

A

Our health e.g. cholesterol levels

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12
Q

Who are healthier than people who take little exercise

A

People who exercise regularly

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13
Q

What are pathogens

A

Microorganisms that cause infectious disease

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14
Q

How do bacteria and viruses make us feel ill

A

By reproducing rapidly inside the body and producing toxins

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15
Q

What do viruses damage

A

The cells in which they reproduce

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16
Q

How do white blood cells help to defend against pathogens

A

Ingesting pathogens
Producing antibodies, which destroy particular bacteria or viruses
Producing antitoxins, which counteracts the toxins released by the pathogen

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17
Q

How does the immune system kill a particular pathogen

A

By producing specific antibodies which can then lead to immunity

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18
Q

How is antibody production stimulated

A

Dead or inactive pathogens in vaccines

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19
Q

How is the spread of a pathogen reduced

A

If a large proportion of the population is immune to the pathogen

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20
Q

What did Semmelweiss recognise

A

The importance of hand washing in the prevention of spreading some infectious diseases

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21
Q

What did Semmelweiss insist

A

That doctors wash their hands before examining patients, and greatly reduced the number of deaths from infectious diseases in his hospital

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22
Q

What do painkillers do

A

Relieve symptoms of infectious diseases but do not kill the pathogen

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23
Q

What are antibiotics

A

Medicines that help cure bacterial disease by killing infectious bacteria inside the body

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24
Q

What can antibiotics not be used for

A

To kill viral pathogens, which live and reproduce inside cells

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25
Q

What should specific bacteria be treated by

A

Specific antibodies

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26
Q

What has the use of antibiotics greatly reduced

A

Deaths from infectious bacterial diseases

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27
Q

What has the over use and inappropriate use of antibiotics increased

A

The rate of development of antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria

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28
Q

Why have many strains of bacteria, including MRSA, developed resistance to antibiotics

A

A result of natural selection

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29
Q

How can further resistance of bacteria be prevented

A

Avoiding overuse of antibiotics

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30
Q

What does the development of antibiotic – restraint strains of bacteria necessitate

A

The development of new antibiotics

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31
Q

What do mutations of pathogens produce

A

New strains

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32
Q

What would happen if there is a new resistant strain of a pathogen

A

Antibiotics and vaccinations may no longer be effective

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33
Q

Why would a new resistant strain of a pathogen spread rapidly

A

People are not immune to it and there is no effective treatment

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34
Q

How can people be immunised

A

Introducing small quantities of dead or inactive forms of the pathogens into the body

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35
Q

What do vaccines stimulate

A

The white blood cells to produce antibodies that destroy the pathogen. Which then makes the person immune to future infections by the microorganism

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36
Q

What happens after you get a disease you have been vaccinated against

A

Your body can respond by rapidly making the correct antibody, in the same way as if you had previously had the disease

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37
Q

What is the MMR vaccine used for

A

To protect children against measles, mumps and rubella

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38
Q

What are uncontaminated cultures of microorganisms required for

A

Investigating the action of disinfectants and antibiotics

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39
Q

How are uncontaminated cultures of microorganisms used to investigate the action of disinfectants and antibiotics

A

Petri dish and agar sterilised before use to kill unwanted bacteria
Inoculating loop passed through flame to sterilise it
Inoculating loop used to spread bacterium onto agar
Lid of petri dish open little as possible to prevent microbes entering
The lid should be secured with adhesive tape to stop microbes from the air contaminating the culture
It also allows the culture to be incubated and the bacteria to grow

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40
Q

What should cultures be incubated at a maximum temperature of in school and college labs

A

25°C, Which greatly reduces the likelihood of growth of pathogens that might be harmful to humans

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41
Q

What can higher temperatures of cultures incubated in industrial conditions produce

A

More rapid growth

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42
Q

What does a healthy diet contain

A

The right balance of the different foods you need and the right amount of energy

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43
Q

Why is it now difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses

A

They also damage the body’s tissue

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44
Q

What kind of pathogens do antibiotics kill

A

The individual ones of the non - resistant strain

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45
Q

Why are antibiotics no longer used to treat non-serious infections

A

So that the rate of development of resistant strains is slowed down

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46
Q

What does the nervous system enable us to do

A

React to our surroundings and coordinate our behaviour

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47
Q

What are receptors

A

Cells that detect stimuli (changes in the environment)

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48
Q

What are the 2 types of effectors and how do they respond

A

Muscles - contracting

Glands - secreting chemical substances

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49
Q

What conditions does the human body control

A

The water content of the body
The ion content of the body
Temperature
Blood sugar levels

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50
Q

What is Homeostasis

A

The maintenance of a constant internal environment

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51
Q

How does water leave the body

A

Via the lungs when we breathe out
Via sweat to cool us down
Excess water is lost via the kidneys in the urine

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52
Q

How are ions lost

A

Via the skin when we sweat

Via the kidneys in the urine

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53
Q

Why does our temperature need to be maintained

A

Our enzymes are biological catalysts and function best at 37 degrees

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54
Q

Why does our blood sugar levels need to be maintained

A

So our cells can be provided with a constant supply of energy

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55
Q

What are hormones

A

Chemical substances that coordinate many processes in the body. They also regulate the functions of many organs and cells.

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56
Q

How are hormones secreted

A

Through glands and are usually transported to their target organs by the blood stream

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57
Q

What is FSH

A

Follicle Stimulating Hormone. It is secreted by the pituitary gland and causes eggs to mature in the ovaries. It also stimulates the ovaries to produce oestrogen

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58
Q

What are the 3 things plants are sensitive to

A

Light (Phototropism)
Moisture (Hydrotropism)
Gravity (Gravitropism/Geotropism

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59
Q

What are tissues and models used to do

A

Predict how drugs may behave in humans

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60
Q

What are new drugs extensively tested for

A

Toxicity
Efficacy
Dosage

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61
Q

How are drugs tested

A

In the lab, using cells, tissues and live animals

In clinical trials, involving healthy patients

62
Q

What happens in double blind trials

A

Some patients are given a placebo, which doesn’t contain the drug. Neither the doctors or patients know who has received a placebo and who has received the drug until the trial is complete

63
Q

What are statins

A

Drugs that lower cholesterol levels and the risk of heart and circulatory diseases

64
Q

What drug caused drug testing to become much more rigorous

A

Thalidomide

65
Q

What are ecstasy, cannabis and heroin

A

Illegal recreational drugs which may have adverse effects on the heart

66
Q

What can cannabis cause

A

Mental illness in some people

67
Q

Why is the overall impact of legal drugs on health greater than the impact of illegal drugs

A

Far more people use them

Availability

68
Q

Why do people become dependent upon drugs

A

Drugs change the chemical processes in people’s bodies

69
Q

When do people suffer from withdrawal symptoms

A

When they are addicted to a drug and try to go without it

70
Q

What are anabolic steroids

A

Drugs that stimulate muscle growth

71
Q

Can athletes use performance enhancing drugs

A

No they are all banned by law and some are available on prescription, but all are prohibited by sporting regulations

72
Q

What kind of performance enhancing drugs do athletes use

A

Stimulants that boost bodily functions such as heart rate

73
Q

To survive and reproduce, what do organisms require

A

A supply of materials from their surroundings and from the other living organisms

74
Q

What do plants compete for

A

Light and space

Water and nutrients from soil

75
Q

What do animals compete for

A

Food
Mates
Territory

76
Q

What are adaptations

A

Features that organisms have to enable them to survive in the conditions in which they normally live

77
Q

What are extremophiles

A

Organisms that live in environments that are very extreme. Extremophiles may be tolerant to high levels of salt, high temperatures or high pressures e.g. Bacteria

78
Q

How are animals adapted to live in dry and arctic environments

A

Changes to surface area
Thickness of insulating coat
Amount of body fat
Camouflage

79
Q

How are plants adapted to survive in dry environments

A

Small surface area compared to volume
Water storage tissues
Extensive root systems

80
Q

What are adaptations to deter predators and protect prey

A

Armour - roses (thorns), cacti (sharp spines) & tortoises (shells)
Poisons - have an unpleasant taste so prey will not be attacked again
Warning colours - confuse prey with poisonous organism
Long limbs - can escape faster
Large eyes - predator detected earlier so prey can escape sooner
Camouflage - less likely to see prey

81
Q

How do changes in the environment affect populations

A

Population distribution of living organisms changes
Population size decreases
Population size increases

82
Q

What are some examples of changes in environment caused by living factors

A 
Change in:
Infectious diseases
Predators
Prey
Availability of food sources
Competitors
83
Q

What are some examples of changes in environment caused by non living factors

A

Change in :
Average temperature
Average rainfall
Level of air or water pollution

84
Q

What are changes in environment caused by

A

Living and non living factors

85
Q

How do you measure environmental change

A

Using living and non living indicators

86
Q

What are indicator species

A

Organisms that are very sensitive to changes in their environment and so can be studied to see the effect of human activities

87
Q

What can lichen be used as

A

Air pollution indicators, particularly of the concentration of SO2 in the atmosphere
The more lichen, the cleaner the air

88
Q

What can invertebrate animals be used as

A

Water pollution indicators and are also used as indicators of the concentration of dissolved O2 in water
The more of them, the cleaner the water

89
Q

What non living indicators can be used to measure environmental changes

A

O2 levels - using meters
Temperature - using satellites
Rainfall - using rain gauges
Atmospheric temperature- using automatic weather stations

90
Q

What is biomass

A

Mass of living material

91
Q

What is a trophic level

A

A feeding level

92
Q

How are pyramids of biomass constructed

A

Producer - primary consumer - secondary consumer - tertiary consumer - etc.

93
Q

Why is the biomass at each successive stage reduced

A

Material and energy are always lost in the organisms’ waste
Respiration supplies the energy needed for living processes, including movement. Most of this energy is eventually transferred to the surroundings as heat
Some material that makes up plants and animals are inedible e.g. bones

94
Q

Why do living things remove materials from the environment

A

For growth and other processes. These materials are returned to the environment either in waste materials or when living things die and decay.

95
Q

Why do materials decay

A

They are broken down (digested) by microorganisms.

96
Q

When are microorganisms more active and digest materials faster

A

In moist, warm and aerobic conditions

97
Q

What does the decay process release

A

Substances that plants need to grow

98
Q

What happens in a stable community

A

The processes that remove materials are balanced by processes that return materials

99
Q

What does the carbon cycle show

A

How carbon is constantly cycled

100
Q

What is the 1st stage in the carbon cycle

A

CO2 is removed by photosynthesis

Carbon is used to make carbohydrates, fats & proteins in the plants and algae

101
Q

What is the 2nd stage in the carbon cycle

A

Carbon is returned as CO2 through respiration of the plants.
Some carbon becomes part of the fats and proteins in animals when the plants are eaten.
The carbon then moves through the food chain.

102
Q

What is the 3rd stage in the carbon cycle

A

Carbon is returned as CO2 when those animals respire

103
Q

What is the 4th stage in the carbon cycle

A

CO2 is returned to the atmosphere when detritus feeders and microorganisms who eat the remains of dead plants, algae and animals respire

104
Q

What is the 5th stage in the carbon cycle

A

Detritus feeders and microorganisms also break down animal waste. Compounds in the waste are taken up from the soil by plants as nutrients - they’re put back into the food chain

105
Q

What is the 6th stage in the carbon cycle

A

Some useful plant and animal products e.g. wood & fossil fuels are burnt (combustion). This also releases CO2 into the air

106
Q

What do genes carry

A

The information that results in plants and animals having similar characteristics to their parents, which are passed on in gametes from which the offspring develop

107
Q

What are gametes

A

Sex cells

108
Q

Why do genes operate at a molecular level

A

To develop characteristics that can be seen

109
Q

What do different genes control

A

The development of different characteristics of an organism

110
Q

Differences in the characteristics of different individuals of the same kind may be due to differences in

A

The genes they have inherited (genetic causes)
The conditions in which they have developed (environmental causes)
A combination of both

111
Q

What are the two forms of reproduction

A

Sexual and asexual

112
Q

What is sexual reproduction

A

The fusion of male and female gametes. The mixture of genetic information from two parents leads to variety in the offspring

113
Q

What is asexual reproduction

A

No fusion of gametes and only one individual is needed as the parent. There is no mixing of genetic information and so no genetic variation in the offspring. These genetically identical individuals are known as clones

114
Q

What is achieved by taking cuttings from older plants

A

New plants can be produced quickly and cheaply.

These new plants are genetically identical to the parent plant

115
Q

What do modern cloning techniques include

A

Tissue culture
Embryo transplants
Adult cell cloning

116
Q

What is tissue culture

A

Using small groups of cells from part of a plant (explant) for cloning
They are grown in nutrient agar
Treated with auxin
Then develop in tiny plants

117
Q

What are embryo transplants

A

Splitting apart cells from a developing animal embryo before they become specialised, then transplanting the identical embryos into host mothers

118
Q

What is adult cell cloning

A

The nucleus is removed from an unfertilised egg cell. The nucleus from an adult body cell e.g. a skin cell, is then inserted into the egg cell. An electric shock then causes the egg to divide into embryo cells. These embryo cells contain the same genetic information as the adult skin cell. When the embryo has developed, it is inserted into the womb of an adult female to continue its development.

119
Q

What happens in genetic engineering

A

Genes from the chromosomes of humans and other organisms can be ‘cut out’ using enzymes and transferred to cells of other organisms.

120
Q

How do animals, plants or microorganisms develop with desired characteristics

A

Genes are transferred to the cells at an early stage in their development

121
Q

What are some concerns about GM crops

A

Effects on populations of wild flowers or insects

Uncertainty about the effects of eating GM crops on human health

122
Q

Why do plants produce hormones

A

To coordinate and control growth

123
Q

What is auxin

A

A plant hormone that controls growth near the tips of shoots and roots

124
Q

Why do shoots grow towards light

A

When a shoot tip is exposed to light, more auxin accumulates on the shaded side than the side that’s in the light. This makes the cells grow faster on the shaded side, so the shoot bends towards the light.

125
Q

Why do shoots grow away from gravity

A

When a shoot is growing horizontally, gravity produces an unequal distribution of auxin on the lower side. This causes the lower side to grow faster, bending the shoot upwards

126
Q

Why do roots grow towards gravity

A

A root growing horizontally will also have more auxin on its lower side. But in a root the extra auxin inhibits growth. This means the cells on top elongate faster, and the root bends downwards.

127
Q

What do roots grow towards

A

Gravity and Moisture

128
Q

What do shoots grow towards

A

Light

129
Q

How are plants growth hormones used in agriculture and horticulture

A

As weed killers and rooting hormones

130
Q

What is LH

A

Luteinising hormone. It stimulates the release of eggs from the ovary and is produced by the pituitary gland

131
Q

What is oestrogen

A

A hormone produced in the ovaries which inhibits the production of FSH

132
Q

How is IVF carried out

A

A mother is given FSH and LH to stimulate the collection of several eggs. The eggs are collected and fertilised by the father’s sperm. The fertilised eggs develop into embryos and one or two embryos are inserted into the mother’s uterus

133
Q

How do oral contraceptives work

A

They contain hormones that inhibit FSH production e.g. oestrogen & progesterone. Large amounts of oestrogen lead women to suffer from significant side effects so now very little is used or none at all

134
Q

What does Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection state

A

That all species of living things have evolved from simple life forms that first developed more than three billion years ago

135
Q

Why was Darwin’s theory only gradually selected

A

The theory challenged the idea that God made all the animals & plants that live on earth
There was insufficient evidence at the time to convince many scientists
The mechanism of inheritance and variation was not known until 50 yrs after the theory was published

136
Q

What idea is Lamarck’s theory based mainly on

A

The idea that changes that occur in an organism during its lifetime can be inherited. We now know that in the vast majority of cases this type of inheritance cannot occur

137
Q

What helps us to understand evolutionary and ecological relationships

A

Studying the similarities and differences between organisms allows us to classify living organisms into animals, plants and microorganisms

138
Q

What do evolutionary relationships show

A

How all living things are related

139
Q

What do ecological relationships show

A

How all living things interact with each other

140
Q

What do evolutionary trees (models) allow us to do

A

Suggest relationships between organisms

141
Q

How does evolution occur

A

Natural selection

142
Q

What is natural selection

A

Individuals within a species show variation because of the differences in their genes
Individuals with characteristics that make them better adapted to the environment have a better chance of survival and so are more likely to breed successfully
The genes that have enabled these individuals to survive are then passed on to the next generation

143
Q

How can evolution occur due to mutations

A

A mutation is a change in an organism’s DNA. Occasionally, mutations are beneficial by producing a useful characteristic. This characteristic may give a better chance of surviving and reproducing. If so, the beneficial mutation is more likely to be passed on to future generations by natural selection. Over time, the beneficial mutation will accumulate in a population e.g. resistant strands of bacteria

144
Q

What is bad cholesterol

A

Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL) - they carry cholesterol to cells and high levels cause fat to build up in the artery

145
Q

What is good cholesterol

A

High Density Lipoproteins (HDL) - they carry cholesterol back to the liver and help prevent cholesterol building up

146
Q

Why is cholesterol needed

A

For healthy cell membranes

147
Q

What is the defence mechanism against droplet infection

A

Mucus

148
Q

What is the defence mechanism against direct contact

A

Skin barrier

149
Q

What is the defence mechanism against contaminated food and drink

A

Stomach acid

150
Q

What is the defence mechanism against breaks in the skin

A

Scabs

151
Q

What are antigens

A

Unique proteins on a cell surface

152
Q

How do individual pathogens develop resistance

A

During antibiotic treatment the less resistant bacteria is killed first
The more resistant bacteria remain and will re-infect if full course of antibiotics not taken

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