Biology Flashcards
Cell Membrane
Protection, communication, and control what goes into & leaves the cell. Made of Phospholipid bilayer ( polar heads; non-polar tails ) w/ proteins and glycoproteins.
Nucleus
Controls activity of the cell & holds instructions for replication.
Cytoplasm
semi-fluid that surrounds the cells organelles. Transports chemicals & nutrients within cell.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Smooth ER- creates & stores steroids & lipids.
Rough ER- major site of synthesis & packaging of proteins; membrane production. Attached to nuclear membrane.
Ribosomes
Where protein synthesis happens. Ribosomes read mRNA & use tRNA to help translate a nuclotide sequence to a protein sequence. Either bound on Rough ER or free floating in cytoplasm.
Golgi Apparaus
Processes, packages, & ships proteins made by the ribosomes that are bond to the ER ( rough ER ).
Mitochondria
Where cellular respiration & energy ( ATP ) production occurs. In eukaryote cells.
Lysosomes
Break down or digest cellular waste ( proteins, fats, sugars, nucleic acids ).
Cilia
Cells have many, short, cilia all over the outside of the cell. Two types:
Motile- have rhythmic wave motion to help move substances along a surface or canal. i.e. Respiratory tract, middle ear.
Non-motile- does not help move anything; just acts as sensory receptors.
Flagella
Cells will have on or two long flagella on the outside of the cell. Help propel cell in liquids.
Vacuoles
Through phagocytosis cells uptake food through the membrane, creating a food vacuole.
In plants this is used for storage, waste disposal, protection and hydrolysis.
Chloroplasts
Produce cell energy in plants @ site of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis
Uses light to produce sugar ( energy ) for the plant.
- ( 6CO2 + 6H2O —-> C6H12O6 + 6O2 ) chem reaction
_ CO2 paring w/ H2O to form simple sugar and O2.
The Light Reaction
Solar energy —> chemical
- Absorb light —> split H2O molecule —> transfer electron —> NADPH & ATP.
Calvin Cycle
NADPH & ATP —> sugar ( for plant energy ).
Metabolism
Sum of all physical and chemical reactions in the body that convert or use energy.
- Catalized by enzymes.
Catabolism
Series of chemical reactions that breaks larger molecules down into smaller ones.
Anabolism
Process of building biomolecules.
- Steroids.
Digestion
- Transport food waste.
- Break down food by physical & chemical force ( catabolic reaction ) into smaller molecules like carbs, proteins, fats, & vitamins.
- Absorption of digested food.
- Eliminate waste.
- Help body maintain proper amount of water, electrolytes, and nutrients.
Genes
Structure and function of the human body.
- Each human has 46 chromosomes ( 23 pairs; 1 pair is sex chromo. and all others are somatic ). More than ( > ) 100,000 genes on one chromosome. Genetic code transmitted to offspring.
- Gene is a sequence of nucleotide bases
Genetic code
Info for offspring. Translated to mRNA. Protein messages expressed by the sequencing of the DNA determines the characteristics and directs body processes.
Human Genome Project
( 1988 ) Identified the sequences of chromosomes ( gene mapping ).
Genetic Variation forms
- Crossing over.
- Gene linkage.
- Genetic variation.
- Independent assortment.
Gametes
Male spermatozoa ( sperm ) & female ova ( eggs ). - Sex cells.
Genes are simply _____ of _______ molecule?
Segments; DNA
Genome
Entire collection of genetic material in each ‘typical’ cell.
When a sperm w/ 23 chromosomes unites w/ an ovum w/ 23 chromosomes a ______ is produced w/ _____ chromosomes?
Zygote; 46
The Human genome has ______ chromosomes?
46.
Genes tend to lie in _____?
Clusters.
Genomics
Analysis/study of the genetic code.
Proteomics
Analysis/study of the proteins encoded by the genome.
Proteome
The entire group of proteins encoded by the human genome.
p-arm of the chromosome
Short segment of the chromosome.
q-arm of the chromosome
Longer segment of the chromosome.
Ideogram
Simple cartoon drawing of a chromosome.
Karyotype
Chart arranging the 23 pairs of chromosomes into number pairs of decreasing size.
Alleles
Two alternative versions of a gene.
Homozygous
Both alleles are the same.
Heterozygous
Both alleles are different.
Energy Prymid
Producers —> Primary consumers —> Secondary consumers —> Decomposers.
Q : 3 students measured the mass of the product of combustion. They recorded measurements of 5.14, 5.16, 5.17. If the true mass is 5.30; how would you describe the students’ measurements?
- A: Accurate, precise, both, or neither?
The students measurements are PRECISE because they were close to the true value; but not accurate because they did not get the 5.30.
Cell movement
3 types of protein fibers in cell to aide in movement.
Cytoskeleton
Provides structural support and aides in movement.
Microfilaments & Intermediate
Intracellular movement mostly. Contractions help move cell in ‘worm-like’ manor.
Microtubules
Extracellular movement. Cilia and flagella are motile structures.
Chemotaxis
Attractive force b/n cell and desirable environment ( swim until cell finds desirable environment ).
Asexual reproduction
One cell is contributing to genetic info.
Binary Fission
Chromosome binds to plasma membrane —> replication —> cell pinches into two identical cells ( asexual reproduction ).
Mitosis
Cell division for all somatic cells ( excluding sex cells ). Cells will only divide in the M plase.
- Interphase
- G1 phase
- S phase
- G2 phase
- M phase
Interphase of Mitosis
Cells are not dividing; DNA replication.
G1 phase of Mitosis
Check point to make sure DNA is okay.
S phase of Mitosis
Protein synthesis.
G2 phase of Mitosis
Second check point to make sure synthesis went okay.
M phase of Mitosis
Cell division.
- Prophase
- Prometaphase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
- Cytokineses
Prophase of Mitosis
Chromosomes duplicate. Centrosomes migrate to opposite poles and spindle fibers form.
Prometaphase of Mitosis
Nuclear membrane disappears, spindle fibers attach to chromosomes, centrosomes react opposite poles.
Metaphase of Mitosis
Chromosomes line up in center of cell, spindle fibers shorten.
Anaphase of Mitosis
Chromosomes are split in half and begin to migrate to opposite poles w/ spindle centrosomes.
Telophase of Mitosis
Chromosomes reach opposite poles and nuclear membrane starts to reform. Cell starts to separate.
Cytokineses of Mitosis
Cell division occurs; cell pinches into two identical cells.
Sexual reproduction
Two cells contribute to genetic info.
____ produces gametes w/ only ______ chromosomes?
Meiosis; 23 ( half of parent ).
Meiosis
Cell division of only sex cells. Stages same as mitosis except division ends in 4 haploid unidentical daughter cells; and two stages of M phase.
- Interphase ( DNA replication)
- G1
- S
- G2
- M1
- M2
M phase 1 of Meiosis
Same stages as mitosis; ends in two unidentical cells w/ sister chromatids.
- Prophase 1
- Prometaphase
- Metaphase 1
- Anaphase 1
- Telophase 1
- Cytokineses 1
M phase 2 of Meiosis
Same stages as mitosis; ends in four haploid unidentical cells w/ chromosomes.
- Prophase 2
- Metaphse 2
- Anaphase 2
- Telophase 2
- Cytokineses 2
Crossing over
Sister chromatids exchange a copy of the same gene for genetic variation.
mRNA
Messenger from original DNA helix. mRNA finds a ribosomes then perform translation ( protein synthesis ).
Transcription
DNA is copied into RNA; RNA synthesis. Produces mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA
Translation
Protein synthesis from mRNA; happens in ribosomes.
tRNA
Aides mRNA in protein synthesis.
Mendel experimented with?
Pea plants.
Hereditary traits
Each human carries the same type of gene ( gene for iris pigment ) but the color won’t be the exact same person to person ( green, blue, brown, or hazel eye color ).
Dominant genes
Gene is expressed. Represented w/ uppercase letter.
Recessive genes
Gene might or might not be expressed. Represented w/ lowercase letter.
Phenotype
Physical characteristics of an individual.
Genotype
Genetic make up of the individual.
Phenotypic ratio
Ratio of the physical characteristics possible for an offspring from two parents.
-ex: poss. outcomes for offspring from two parents w/ heterozygous recessive blue eye gene = 3:1 ( imagine punnett square ).
Genotypic ratio
Ratio of genes that could be present.
-ex: Imagine punnet square for blue eyes both parents heterozygous. So ratio is 1:2:1; because 25% chance of homozygous dominant; 50% chance of heterozygous dominant; 25% chance of homozygous recessive.
Scientific Method steps
- Analyze: ask ‘how’ or ‘why’ something works/exists.
- Hypothesize: form own explanation of ‘how’ or ‘why’.
- Predict: what would happen based on the hypothesis.
- Experiment: to see if prediction/hypothesis is correct or not.
DNA
- Holds cells genetic info.
- Each base forms hydrogen bond ( A&T, C&G ).
DNA replication
Happens in the nucleus during Interphase. The enzymes used are helicase, DNA polymerase, primase, and ligase.
Helicase
First step in DNA replication.
- Unwinds/separates DNA into two strands
Primase
Primes original DNA stand to replicate and connect with new DNA strand.
DNA Polymerase
Replicates the DNA molecules to build new stands of DNA.
Ligase
“Glues” the strands together to create the DNA helix.
Diffusion
Passive movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration.
Osmosis
Type of diffusion where large molecules are dissolved in water in order to be passed through the cell membrane.
- Ex : starch molecules must be dissolved since they are they largest molecule.
Osmotic pressure
Water moves across a membrane from a solution of low solute concentration to high concentration.
-Requires active transport.
Also the minimum pressure needed to prevent inward flow of substances across a semi permiable membrane into the cell.
Active transport
Movement across a membrane that requires ATP; since it is moving against the gradient.
What is necessary for cell diffusion?
Water.
Nucleotide bases for DNA?
Adenine & Thymine
Cytosine & Guanine
Nucleotide bases for RNA?
Adenine & Uracil
Cytosine & Guanine
Nucleic Acids
- DNA : contains code for replication & cell function/structure.
- RNA : used in translation and transcription.
Carbs
Used for storage, structure and energy.
- Long chain polymer sugars.
Micro Papovavirus
HPV, genital warts, and genital cancers.
Hypertonic solution
The solution has a high concentration of solutes than the cell ( more solutes outside cell ). So water moves out of the cell ( following higher about of solutes ) causing it to shrivel.
Hypotonic solution
The solution has a lower concentration of solutes than the cell ( more solutes inside cell than outside ). Water moves into the cell causing it to swell and possible burst.
Isotonic solution
Concentration of solutes is equal inside the cell as outside. So water moves in both directions, maintaining cell size.
Inspiration
The process of inhalation ( breathing in ) or intake of oxygen. It is an active process where the intercostal muscles will contract ( expanding the lungs ).
Expiration
The process of exhalation ( breathing out ) carbon dioxide. It is a passive process where the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax.
