Biology Flashcards
10 things to know about Ebola
- Incubation period is 2-41 days before symptoms appear.
- Death rate is as high as 90% in Africa.
- Infects white blood cells such as monocytes and macrophages and fibroblasts, dendritic cells, and endothilial cells that can cause clots in bloodstreams.
- Liver cells are also targeted.
- Blocks interferon release (interferon is a glycoprotein secreted by animal cells to inhibit virus replication).
- Replicates very quickly.
- Filament-like in structure.
- Spreads through direct contact with infected bodily fluids or tissues.
- People die from organ failures, low blood pressure, and shock.
- Not airborne, does not cause excessive bleeding, and does not effect red blood cells.
Skin has ___ layers
- Epidermis (outermost layer that is replaced constantly)
- Dermis (has most depth and consists of hair follicles and small blood vessels)
- Subcutaneous Tissue (lowest layer containing larger blood vessels - arteries & veins - and sweat glands)
The largest organ is the ____, which stretches over ___ ft. The largest internal organ is the _______, which is ____ lbs.
skin, 20 ft
liver, 3.5 lbs
Dinosaurs first appeared in the _________ _____, about ____ _________ years ago and vanished ____ _________ years ago.
Triassic Period, 230 million years ago; 65 million years ago.
Actin and myosin are involved in ______ __________ and _____________ - name a difference between plant and animal cells.
muscle contraction
cytokinesis - plant cells form cell plates between where cell walls form while animal cells form cleavage furrowing as the initial sign of cytokinesis.
Partial monosomy:
Partial trisonomy:
Partial monosomy is the loss of a part of one chromosome.
Partial trisonomy is the gain of a portion of another (third) chromosome.
Identification of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria is done via growth in _____________ broth. The 5 different aerobes and anaerobes are…
thioglycollate broth
- Obligate aerobe - needs oxygen
- Obligate anaerobes - poisoned by oxygen
- Facultative anaerobes - can grow with or without oxygen but can grow more via aerobic respiration because it produces more ATP
- Microaerobes - need oxygen but poisoned by high concentrations of oxygen.
- Aerotolerants - don’t need oxygen but can tolerate it.
Penicillins
eliminate bacterial infections by interfering with bacteria’s ability to synthesize its cell wall.
Left lung vs. Right lung
Left lung has two lobes and is smaller. It also has a cardiac notch where the heart and the heart’s vasculature fit.
The Right lunch has three lobes and is larger.
Afferent vs. Efferent neurons
Afferent (sensory) neurons carry nerve impulses from peripheral body parts to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). Afferent neurons are closely related to skin and sensory organs such as eyes and nose.
Efferent (motor) neurons carry nerve impulses away from the central nervous system to effectors such as muscles and glands.
Microarray
used to determine gene expression and detection of DNA or RNA
Monotreme:
Marsupial:
Monotremes are mammals that lay eggs. Examples are platypuses and echidnas (spiny anteaters)
Marsupials are mammals that complete embryonic development in the pouch. Kangaroo is an example.
3 things to know about Chitin
- It is a polysaccharide containing glucose attached with nitrogen groups
- It is a polymer of amino sugars
- Cell walls of fungi contain chitin
Sodium-Potassium pump (5 things to know)
- It is an integral protein.
- It lets 3 sodiums out and 2 potassiums in.
- It uses ATP.
- It pumps ions against the concentration gradient (reason why ATP is required).
- If drugs such as oubain or digitalis are used, the pump would stop and sodium ions would accumulate inside the cell.
Illeocecal valve:
between the large and small intestines and prevents contents from going in either direction.
Colchicine and its effect on microtubules and mitosis
Colchicine is an alkaloid that inhibits tubulin polymeration into microtubules. Microtubules and associated proteins comprise the mitotic spindles. In the presence of colchicine, mitosis stops.
Thyroid gland and I-131
The thyroid gland produces calcitonine and iodine-containing hormones thyroxine and triiodothyonine. Thyroxine and triiodothyronine influence growth, development, and overall metabolic rates. Ingestine of I-131 is a method to determine thyroid activity.
Kidneys and the constriction of its afferent and efferent arterioles
- blood enters the glomerulus of the kidney via afferent arterioles and leaves via efferent arterioles.
- constriction of the afferent arteriole results in decreased glomerular pressure, hydrostatic pressure, and filtration rate.
- constriction of the efferent arteriole results in increased glomerulus pressure, hydrostatic pressure, and filtration rate.
- Sympathetic innervations of the kidneys primarily affect the afferent arterioles and cause constriction and would reduce urine output (since blood is prevented from flowing to glomerulus). Also, sympathetic nervous system is the flight-or-fight response and therefore more important functions like heart pumping would be focused and peeing would be less focused.
The three steroid hormones are _______, _______, and _______. Steroid hormones have _______ receptors. An example of a non-steroid, peptide hormone is __________, which has a ______ receptor.
estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone
nuclear receptors
insulin, cell-surface
Angiosperms
- has a unique feature of double fertilization of the egg nucleus and central nucleus.
- one sperm fertilizes the egg to form 2N zygote (two haploid gametes = one diploid zygote); the other sperm fertilizes the two nuceli of the central cell to form 3N (one haploid sperm and two haploid eggs). This 3N zygote is an endosperm nucleus, a nutritive tissue that provides nutrients to developing embryo.
Why do earthworms die when you put salt on them?
The skin of an earthworm secretes mucous which keeps the skin moist. Moist skin is needed for gas exchange, because earthworms do not have respiratory organs. Salt destroys the sensitive skin of an earthworm and causes death.
Connective tissue is derived from the __________ layer of an embryo. This layer consists of various types of cells such as __________, ___________, _____________. Some connective tissue such as ______ and ______ are rigid while other connective tissue such as ________ and ________ are flexible.
mesoderm; fibroblast, mast cells, and macrophages
bone and cartilage
adipose and fibrous
Glycolysis (3 points)
- single metabolic pathway that occurs in all living cells
- one glucose needs 2 ATPs to facilitate glycolysis
- the products are 2 pyruvates, 2 NADH, and 2 ATPs (there are 2 net ATPs produced; the end product is 4 ATPs but 2 of them are used in the beginning, so net ATP produced is 2).
Indeterminate cleavage
results in identical twins.
Starch contains ______ and _________. ___ reacts with ___ to form ___. The ___ molecule inserts itself into the ______ “coiled” structure and forms a complex that appears __________. Only ______ reacts.
amylose and amylopectin;
I2,I-, I3-;
I3-, amylose;
amylose
Hepatic veins (2 points)
- allow blood to leave the liver.
- empty out into the inferior vena cava, allowing blood to be returned to the general circulation.
Bilirubin
- is a bile pigment that the liver should be able to remove via the digestive track.
- accumulation of it causes jaundice.
Autotrophs
make their own food, turning inorganic molecules to organic molecules.
Example is plant, which is also a phototroph. A phototroph turns light energy into carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
- Papillae:
- Papillary muscles:
- Photoreceptors:
- Ciliary muscle:
- rough projections on the tongue that provide friction; also contain taste buds.
- cone-shaped muscles located in the heart.
- are part of the retina of the eye and contain rod and cone cells; rods are responsible for black/white sight in the dark and cones are responsible for bright light vision and distinction of colors.
- is part of the retina of the eye and involved in changing of the lens shape.
Echinoderms
Annelids
invertebrates like starfish, sea urchin, sea cucumber; adults display radial symmetry.
invetebrates like earthworms, ragworms, leeches; have segementation.
Convergent evolution
when two distinct species from different ancestors evolve to have similar physical features; example is the hummingbird and sunbird.
- Pluripotent stem cells
- Thrombus
- Erythropoietin
- arise in the early embryo and give rise to erythrocytes, platelets, and potential line of blood cells.
- blood clot - may cause heart attack or stroke.
- glycoprotein hormone that controls erthyropoiesin (red blood production); the kidney may produce it in the tissues that are not receiving enough oxygen; it also stimulates erthryopoiesin in bone marrow.
- Erythrocytes _ Platelets _ Leukocytes in abundance
- During injury, release of ________ will cause _________, and will allow ______ _______ ______ to squeeze out of the _____________.
- A ____________ _____ is a cancer cell with ability for ___________ growth.
- ___________ is a result of _________ and ________ fusing; this can produce a _______ ________.
- >, >
- histamine, vasodliation, white blood cells, capillaries.
- myeloma cell, indefinite
- hybridoma, lymphocyte and myeloma; desired antibody.
- Postaglandins:
- Pancrease’s dual functions:
- Norepinephrine’s dual functions:
- Adrenal glands:
- Ecdysone:
- are modified fatty acids that induce fever, pain sensation, and inflammation; aspirin inhibits prostaglandin activity.
- The exocrine tissue produces liapse, amylases, and protease and exports them to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. The endocrine tissue produces hormones such as insulin and glucose.
- acts as epinephrine to increase glycogen breakdown and allow glucose release into the bloodstream; also act as neurotransmitter.
- make hormones such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, and aldosterone.
- hormone involved in insect molting and metamorphosis.
Differences in the three trimesters of pregancy
- first trimester is the main period in which the organs develop (rapid organ development), which is why the embryo is most sensitive to drugs and radiation at this time. After 8 weeks, the embryo is called the fetus.
- second trimester is when the fetus is very active and the uterus grow enough for pregancy to be noticed.
- third trimester - the final growth is about 1.6 feet and 7 lbs.
Disulfide formation and breakdown
disulfide bonds are formed by oxidation and borken by reduction.
- Helicases
- Restriction endonucleases
- Ligase
- Dehydrogenase
- motor proteins that unwind DNA using energy from ATP.
- cut DNA at specific sequences.
- repairs discontinuities in DNA.
- involved in redox reactions.
Endosporulation
- when bacterium produces endospores which are resistent to extreme temperatures, chemicals, toxins, detergents, and radiation.
- endospores are a part of gram positive bacteria’s survival strategy under adverse conditions.
- endospore is comprised of bacterial cytoplasm, DNA, and surrounded by tough outer coat.
The cell wall of bacteria is made up of _______. The cell wall of plants are made up of _______.
peptidoglycan; cellulose
Three types of blood
- Erthtryocytes: Red blood cells, transports oxygen and carbon dioxide
- Leukocytes: White blood cells (no hemoglobin), immune response team
- Platelets: repairs tears and allows blood clotting
White Blood Cells (two categories, seven total different cells)
- Granulocytes
- Neutrophils: 60% most abundant WBC, phagocytic, first responder of immune system.
- Basophils: releases histamin to reduce inflammation (similar to mast cells which are embedded in tissues and release histamin and heparin). Least abundant WBC.
- Eosinophils: respond to allergies and defend against parasites.
- Agranuloctyes
- Lymphocytes (30% WBC)
- T cells (Natural killer cells): attack bacteria and virus directly.
- B cells: produce antibodies.
- Monocytes
- Dendritic cells: attach to antigens and signal for lymphocytes to attack.
- Macrophages: larger, longer-living than neutrophils; also phagocytic.
- Lymphocytes (30% WBC)
Analogous structures
Homologous structures
- evolve differently and are built from different structures; have no common ancestor (ex. wings of insects and wings of birds)
- evolve similarly and from common ancestor (ex. hands and arms of humans and primates)
- Fixed action pattern
- Habituation
- Classical Conditioning
- Imprinting
- unlearned, coordinated response to environmental stimulus (fish swimming in schools, spiders spinning webs)
- Diminishing of a response to frequent stimulus
- Response learned from two coordinated stimuli (ex. aversion to chocolate after shock therapy)
- Recognization of another species as parent or object of habitual trust
Lympathic system (7 major functions)
- Equalization of fluid distribution
- Interstitial fluid pressure > lympathic pressure: lympathic vessels flap open, interstitial fluid enters lympathic capillaries, lympathic capillaries merge with veins, fluid returned to blood.
- Interstitial fluid pressure < lympathic pressure: lympathic vessels close, prevents lymph from leaking out.
- Transport of proteins and large glycerides
- fats absorbed in lacteals of small intestines
- lacteals are lympathic capillaries in the small intestine
- plasma protein that leacked into interstiial fluid get returned to blood via the lymphatic system.
- Lymphocytes production for immune response
- lymphocytes come from the bone marrow which produce blood stem cells.
- lymphoid tissue is where lymphocytes reside, proliferate, and differentiate.
- lymphoid tissue is in the lymph nodes, thymus, and other organs.
- lymphocytes also clean and filter lymph.
- thymus is where the T cells mature
- Return materials to blood
- cells and plasma protein that get leaked from blood are returned via lymphatic capillaries that merge into veins.
- Composition of lymph
- lymph is the stuff that leaks of out the capillaries - water, plasma, protein, chemicals, and white blood cells.
- Source of lymph (diffusion from capillaries by differential pressure)
- blood plasma from capillaries travel to interstitial fluid and lymph and finally returned to blood.
- Lymph nodes (activation of lymphocytes)
- lymph nodes are concentrated with white blood cells
- when pathogens or antigens get inside the lymph nodes, the lymphocytes get activated and start releasing chemicals that stimulate an immune response - proliferation, antibody production, and release of cytokines.
During embryonic development, ________ allows for fingers and toes to separate.
apoptosis (cell death)
3 Laws of Thermodynamics
- Energy is never created or lost, only transferred.
- Entropy is every increasing
- At absolute zero, entropy should theoretically be zero (miniscule).
Catabolism:
Anabolism:
- breaks down nutrients into forms of energy
- synthesizes biomolecules from similar compounds
G-proteins and Adenylyl Cyclase pathway:
Neurotransmitters like ________ bind to the __-protein, ___ becomes ___ and __-protein’s ______ dissociate. The _-______ binds to an effector protein/enzyme like ________ ________ which catalyzes the conversion of ____ to _______-____ that functions as a _________ ____________.
epinephrine; G; GTP; GDP; G; subunits; alpha-subunit; adenylyl cyclase; ATP; cyclic-AMP; secondary messenger
An attenuated vaccine contains a version of a _______ microbe that has been weakend and modified in lab. The ability to induce protective immunity is ________ while virulence is _______.
living; kept; lost
- Poikilotherms
- Endotherms
- Ectotherms
- organisms with body temperatures influenced by the environment (ex. some birds and insects)
- organims that use metabolic energy to maintain a constant body temperature
- organisms that absorb heat from the environment (ex. amphibians, invertebrates, reptiles)
Tuberculosis is caused by _________________, while small pox, chicken pox, rabies, and hepatitis are caused by __________.
airborne bacteria; viruses
Small intestine anatomy (3 parts)
- duodenum
- jejunum
- ileum
Bones of the body
Freshwater fish vs. Saltwater (marine) fish
Freshwater fish:
- in hypo-osmotic environment, so gets lots of water and loses lots of salt.
- rarely drink
- absorb salt through gills
- abundant dilute urin
Marine fish:
- in hyper-osmotic environment, so loses water and gets lots of salt.
- constantly drink
- excrete salt through gills
- Coelomates
- Pseudocoelomates
- Acoelomates
- worms with true coelum (body cavity surrounded by tissue from the mesoderm), ex. vertebrates like arthropods and annelids
- worms with pseudocoelum (body cavity surrounded by mesoderm tissue on one side only)
- no true coelum, ex. flatworms
Small intestine (2 facts)
- large surface area (300 m2)
- villi contain capillaries and lacteals, covered in microvilli that further increases the surface area and aid in absorbtion of food and vitamins.
Radioisotopes are used to study _________________. Generally, an organism can/cannot distinguish between normal and radioactive elements.
reaction pathways; cannot
Most animal eggs have _____. The yolk is most concentrated at the ________ pole and least concentrated at the _______ pole. When ____________ cells elongate, the _______ plate forms, which produces the ______ tube that eventually become the __________ and ______ ____. The _______ __________ establishes the body axis and is located on the side __________ sperm penetration.
polarity; vegetal; animal; ectodermal; neural; neural; brain and spinal cord; Gray Crescent; opposite
After fertilization, the cell undergoes ______, which is a series of mitotic cell divisions. The embryo’s size ________ during this process.
Segmented blocks that form on either side of the notochord of an embryo are called _______. They produce the _______ and _______ of the axial skeleton.
cleavage; does not change
Somites; vertebrae; muscles
Ion channels transport ions across the ___________ gradient and requires two forces to drive ion diffusion, __________ and __________.
Carrier proteins are needed for ________ _______ and _____ _______.
electrochemical; electrical; chemical
faciliated diffusion; active transport
- Gymnosperms
- Angiosperms
- spruce, pine, fir trees
- fruits, flowering plants, maple, oaks, grass
- monocots: parallel veins in leaves
- dicots: netlike veins in leaves
Bacteria are _________. They replicate via _______ _____. Most are _______ ________ chromosome. Many also have ________. The _____ can hold bacteria together during ___ ___________.
prokaryotes; binary fission; single, circular; plasmids; pilli; DNA conjugation
Oxidation vs. Reduction
Oxydation: gain Oxygen, lose Hydrogen, lose electrons
Reduction: lose Oxygen, gain Hydrogen, gain electrons
Mammals and adult amphibians excrete ____.
Marine animals excrete ____.
Birds, insections, and reptiles excrete ____. They don’t need ____ for excretion and instead form a ______.
______ _____ is the capillary system associated with the Loop of Henle and involved in _________ urine.
urea
ammonia
uric acid; water; precipitate
Vasa recta; concentrating
Blastophore
is part of the egg and the opening of an archenteron that can develop into the mouth or anus.
Water content during summer vs. spring/autumn:
Summer: warm water is at surface and aerated, nutrients are at the bottom layer.
Spring/Autumn: warm water moves to lower layer and nutrients move to the surface during process called turnover.
Somatostatin
hormone that suppresses the release of gastrointestinal hormones such as gastrin, insulin, secretin, cholecystokinin. Suppression decreases the rate of gastric emptying and blood flow within intestines.
Menstrual cycle (3 parts)
- Menstrual flow: endometrium (lining of uterus) disintegrate
- Proliferative phase: estrogen levels increase and endometrium thickens
- Secretory phase: endometrium thickens more, arteries enlarge, glands grow with increased progesterone and estrogen levels.
Ecological succession
communities replace each other in predictable manner. ex. ponds > grasslands > deserts
Gametangium is a plant cell in which ____ are produced. The cell is haploid/diploid. The female gametangium is called a ___________ and the male gametangium is called ____________. The sperm swims from the ________ to the __________ to fertilize.
gametes; haploid; archegonium; antheridium; antheridium to the archegonium.
Immune system’s 2 branches
- Humoral immunity: act against pathogens like free viruses and bacteria by antibody circulation.
- Cell-mediated immunity: work against pathogens with T-cells.
Diapedesis
Movement of white blood cells through capillaries to surrounding tissue. White blood cells slip through the endothelial pores that widen due to “injury-producing” chemicals during infection or traumatic injury.
- Postaglandins, histamines are released by injured tissue. Vasodilation and increase in capillary permeability occur.
- Increase in blood flow and white blood cells consumed by pathogens
Detritivores
organisms that consume dead or decaying organic matter (detritus); “decomposing organisms”
ex. earthworms, slugs, millipedes, wood lice, crabs
Agglutination
clumping of red blood cells as a result of mixing blood groups.
Biomes
areas/environment with similar climate and vegetation.
- Epistasis
- Multiple Allele
- Pleiotrophy
- when one gene is dependent on another (ex. hair color is dependent on having hair)
- there are more than two alleles possible for a gene locus.
- when one gene that has no relation to another affects that gene (ex. phenylketonuria)
Desmosomes
- anchoring junctions between adjacent cells
- allows cells to become joined to become strong epithial tissue
- randomly arranged on lateral sides of the plasma membrane
- occur within all types of animal tissue
- abundant in skin
Sponges
- sessile (imobile) animals
- hermaphrodites
- have choanocytes to trap food
Arthropods
- evolved from annelids
- have appendages that allow for copulation, walking, feeding, and defense
- no blood, but has hemolymph which is the open circulatory system’s fluid
- largest animal phylum.
- spiders, insects, crabs, lobsters are examples
- jointed legs, exoskeletons, open circulatory system, bilateral symmetry
Platyheminthes
flatworms
- acoelates
- have flame cells that remove waste and water (characteristic of all simple worms)
- unsegmented
- invertebrates
- lack specialized nervous, circulatory, and respiratory systems
- Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport is by diffusion
Osteoblast
strengthen bone by depositing collagen and releasing calcium phosphate; also produces the mineral hydroxyapatite which contributes to bone strength.
The first step of urine filtration is the filtration of substances through the __________ _________ into the _________ _______. Glomular filtrate is similar to ______ but lacks _______ __________. Glomular filtrate contains _______, _________, ______, _______ ______, ____, ______, _______. Water is forced out of the ________ _________ and into the ________ _______.
glomerular membrane, Bowman’s capsule.
plasma, large proteins.
water, glucose, urea, amino acids, Na+, K+, Cl-.
glomerular capillaries; Bowman’s capsule.
Diseases of trisomy nondistinction (3)
Disease of monosomy (1)
Edward syndrome - addition of chromosome 18
Down syndrome - addition of chromosome 21
Klinefelter syndrome - trisonomy of sex genes
Turner syndrome - female carries only one X chromosome.
Human autosomes and sex chromosomes can be precisely examined at __________ when they are most condensed.
Karyotyping is the detection of ______ defects by looking at chromosomes.
metaphase
congenital (from birth)
Steroid vs. Nonsteroidal hormones
Steroid hormones: made from cholesterol (lipid soluble)
ex. estrogen, prgesterone, testosterone
Nonsteroidal hormones: made from amino acids (water soluble)
ex. norepinephrine, epinephrine, insulin
Vasopressin (ADH)
- antidiuretic hormone
- nonsteroidal, peptide hormone of endocrine system
- allows body to retain water and reduce urine output.
- raises blood pressure by vasoconstriction
- alcohol blocks creation of vasopressin and results in the urge to urinate.
- made in the hypocampus and stored in the posterior pituitary gland.
- Lumen
- Sphincters
- Submucosa
- space inside a tube
- rings of muscle in the wall of the esophagus, stomach, and other specialized regions
- layer of connective tissue with blood and lymph vessels along with nerve plexuses (nerve branching network)
Organelles that prokaryotes don’t have (5)
- mitochondria
- glogi body
- endoplasmic reticulum
- nucleus
- lysosome
Amylase is made by ________ _______ and _________ which also makes ____ and _____. Amylase breaks down __________.
salivary glands and pancrease; protease and lipase; carbohydrates
Spermatids are haploid/diploid cells that differentiate into mature sperm cells with the help of _______ cells.
haploid; Sertoli
- Angiosperms
- Gymnosperms
- flowering plants divided into monocots or dicots
- Plants that don’t produce flowers (ex. pine, red wood, and juniper trees)
Undifferentiated ______ tissue develops into the ______ and ______ of a plant.
cambium; phloem, xylem.
Xylem: transporst water and minerals up the stem.
Phloem: transports nutrients down the stem.
Stomata
pores in a leaf that controls gas exchange by opening and closing; gaps between guard cells.
Chloroplast
- where photosynthesis occurs
- contains inner and outer membrane
- inner membrane contains fluid called stroma
- stacked disks also present in inner membrane
Thylakoid
disk of stacks in the chloroplast; each disk contains chlorophyll (photosynthetic pigment).
Meristem
found in higher plants and represents cell types; the apical meristem contains cells that produce branches and flowers.
Nucleotide vs. Nucleoside
nucleotide: sugar, base, phosphate
nucleoside: sugar, base (no phosphate)
- Kinase
- Phosphatase
- Lyase
- Dehydrogenase
- transfers phosphoryl groups
- catalyzes hydrolytic cleavage of a phosphate ester bond
- catalyzes cleavage of C-C, C-O, C-N bonds by elimination (double bond formation)
- catalyzes redox reactions
DNA replication begins at the __________________. Prokaryotes have ___ of these while eukaryotes have ___ of these resulting in rapid replication.
origion of replication
one; many
Antibodies (5 major classes)
Y-shaped, immunoglobin proteins that identify and neutralize forgein objects by recognizing their antigens (counterpart to antibodies)
- IgG - most abundant; main antibody of blood; only antibody capable of passing through placenta to protect the fetus; widely distributed to the blood and tissue.
- IgA - made up of two antibodies; prevents bacterial from attaching to epithelia; distributed to serum, nasal discharge, saliva, breast milk, bowel fluid.
- IgM - made up of five antibodies; key role in initial immune system; distributed to blood.
- IgE - involved in allergic reactions and response to parasites.
- IgD - present in the surface of B cells; induction of antibody production.
Hemoglobin
protein in red blood cells that carry O2
- allosteric
- binds to O2, CO2, CO, H+
- low pH and high CO2 levels unload O2
- tetramer of two alpha and two beta chains
- quaternary structure
- binds CO tighter than O2
- heme is the prosthetic group
Yellow bone marrow
&
Spongy bone
yellow bone marrow - fat storage
spongy bone - has red marrow that produces red blood cells, some white blood cells, and platelets (thrombocytes)
When blood supply is low, yellow bone marrow changes to red bone marrow.
Platelets arise from multinucleated cells in the ____ bone marrow called __________.
red; Megakaryocytes
Plant Hormones (4)
- Gibberellins - may induce certain plants to flower and for stem elongation.
- Ethylene - stimulates fruit ripening.
- Abscisic acid - inhibitor of growth hormones.
- Cytokinins - promote cell division.
Peroxisomes
microbodies that convert H2O2 to H2O and O2.
Gluconeogenesis
process of non carbs (fats and amino acids) being made into glucose; occurs in cytosol.
Centrioles are found only in the ___________ cells
animal
plant cells do NOT have centrioles.
Sister chromatids separate in _________.
Nucleolus reappears in ___________.
Cytokinesis occurs during late ________ or early ________.
Chromatids shorten and thicken, nucleoli disappears, spindle fibers form, centrioles in animal cells move to opposite poles in ________.
anaphase
telophase
anaphase; telophase
prophase
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium calculation for phenotypic frequency:
p = dominant allele frequency
q = recessive allele frequency
p+q=1
p2+2pq+q2 = 1
2pq is the frequency of heterozygous individuals.
Cyanobacteria
A _____ is symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a cyanobacteria. The cyanobacteria provide nutrients for the fungus and the fungus provides protection.
- blue-green algae
- prokaryotes of Kingdom Monea
- reproduce asexually by binary fission
lichen
The most accurate way to work out a molecular structure is ________________.
X-Ray Diffraction.
Peptidoglycan (4)
Bacterial viruses that cause infection use ________ _____ as recognition and binding sites. They are in gram positive bacteria and covalently attached to the peptidoglycan layer.
- composed of polyssacharides and polypeptide chains
- in bacteria’s cell wall
- gram positive bacteria have thick peptidoglycan layer and appear purple after gram staining
- think peptidoglycan layers cause most gram stain to be washed off
Teichoic acids
What is the general science behind birth control?
It tricks the body into thinking it is pregnant. Esterogen and progestin (synthetic progesterone) are commonly used in birth control pills. Progestin (progesterone) decreases FSH and LH so there is not “another” pregnancy.
Myelin (3)
- made up of Schwann cells
- electrical insulator
- increases rate in which axon can translate signals.
Inner ear cotains semicircular canals responsible for ________ and cochlea where sound waves in air converted to ___________.
balance; neural messages
Hormones that reside in…
- Anterior pituitary glands
- Posterior pituitary glands
- Adrenal Cortex
- Adrenal Medulla
- Pancreatic alpha cells
- B cells
- HGH, LH, FSH, TSH, Prolactin
- Vasopressin (ADH) and oxytocin (both made in hypothalamus)
- Aldosterone and cortisol
- epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (nonadrenaline)
- glucagon
- insulin
Glucagon and cortisol ________ glucose levels while insulin ________ glucose levels. Aldosterone reabsorbs ____, excretes ____ in kidneys. It also increases ______ ______ and _____.
increase; decreases
Na+, K+
blood pressure, volume
Fungi (9)
- eukaryotic heterotrophs (uses organic carbon)
- secrete digestive enzymes and then reabsorb soluble products of digestion.
- composed of filaments called hyphae (mycelium is a group of hyphae)
- can reproduce sexually or asexually
- haploid state predominates but goes back and forth from diploid
- Saprophytic - breaks down remains of living organisms that have died.
- Immotile and have cell walls
- Attacks dead matter and algae tissue
- More similar to animal cells than plant cells.
- Habitat
- Niche
- Community
- physical environment in which organism lives
- role that organism plays in natural community
- interaction between different populations.
Coagulase
enzyme that allows blood clotting
Symbioms (3)
- Parastism
- Mutualism
- Commensalism
- one organism benefits while other is harmed
- both organisms benefit
- one organism benefits while other is unharmed
- Ectoderm
- Endoderm
- Mesoderm
- hair, eyes, teeth, skin, nervous system, lens of the eye
- lining of bladder, digestive and respiratory tracts, liver, pancrease, gall bladder
- skeleton, muscles, gonads, kidney, cirulatory system
Four cells of the stomach
- Chief cells: secrete Pepsinogen
- Parietal cells: secrete HCl, Instrinsic factor (B-12 absorption)
- G-cells: secrete the hormone gastrin which stimulates HCl production of parietal cells
- Mucous cells: secrete mucous that lubricates the stomach and protects the stomach from HCl produced.
Collagen
makes up bone and connective tissue and is the most abundant protein in vertebrates
Three types of muscle
- Cardiac: single nucleus; has striations as well as complex junctions between adjacent individual cells called Intercalated discs; involuntary
- Skeleton: multinucleated; voluntary and striated; normally does not undergo mitosis; contains think myosin protein filaments that slide past the thin actin protein filaments
- Smooth: single nucleated; found in walls of urinary bladder, digestive system, uterus, blood vessels; involuntary; non-striated; actin and myosin are present but not organized into sarcromeres like seen in skeletal muscle.
Epinephrine will… (6)
- increase heart rate, respiratory rate
- increase blood glucose, blood flow to skeletal muscle
- increase rate of glycogenolysis
- will constrict blood vessels to decrease blood supply to digestive tract and kidneys
- dilation of pupils
- increase blood flow to brain and blood pressure
Sperm-proof fertilization membrane is formed when the ___________ __________ in the egg fuse with the _________ _______. As enzymes are released, biochemical reactions harden the __________ layer and allow no further sperm from entering. This cortical reaction is referred to as __________________. The acromosal reaction is the fast block, in which an electrical response occurs to change the membrane potential to prevent _________.
cortical granules; plasma membrane
vitelline
“slow block to polyspermy”
polyspermy
Xylem contains two types of cells _______ and ________ members. It conducts water and dissolved mineral absorbed from the soil, and mechanically supporst the plant. The yearly xylem deposits make up the annual growth rings used to record the age of a plant. Phloem is another vascular tissue consisting of ____ ______ through which sugars and other solutes are conducted.
tracheids, vessel
sieve tubes
Nitrogen fixing
conversion of atmospheric N2 to NH4+ and NO3-. (NH3as well). Nitrogen fixing bacteria are located in root “swellings” called nodules. Plants that contribute to nitrogen fixation include the legume family.
Aldosterone is a _________________ isolated from the ________ ________. It allows for ______ and ____ balance. It stimulates the ________ cells to reabsorb sodium ions and water from the filtrate, thus we see a ______ in blood volume and blood pressure.
mineralcorticoid; adrenal cortex
water and salt
kidney; rise
Epinephrine and norepinephrine are hormones belonging to a class of compounds called ____________.
catecholamines
Reverse Transcriptase
catalyzes DNA synthesis from RNA
Color blindedness is a X-linked disease.
A color blind male and a homozygous normal female would produce what frequency of color blind daughters and sons?
all daughters will be color blind and no sons will be color blind.
Adaptive radiation
number of different species emerge from a single ancestor; exemplifies divergent evolution.
Inversion
Translocation
chromosomal segment is turned around 180o
two nonhomologous chromosomes interchange genes, resulting in the attachment of all or part of one chromosome to another.
