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Entrance exam Hungary > Biology > Flashcards

Biology Flashcards

1
Q

Nucleic acids

A
  • There are two types of nucleic acids which are polymers found in all living cells. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA).
  • The DNA contains the genetic codes to make RNA and the RNA in turn then contains the codes for the primary sequence of amino acids to make proteins
  • Nucleic acids are composed of a phosphate backbone, a sugar (deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA) and a nucleotide.
  • Adenine and Thymine, Cytosine and Guanine.
  • Pyrimidines are C and T, Purines are A and G
  • Nucleic acids are just like proteins the most important biological macromolecule
  • In the nucleic acid sequence the transmitting, the functioning of encoding and the genetic information is stored. This means that the order of the different nucleotides determines the sequence of the amino acids and so determines which protein is formed (translation)
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2
Q

Virus

A
  • They cannot survive and reproduce independently from lining cells, they need a host
  • They are small
  • They mutate rapidly which makes them require a new type of drug
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3
Q

Bacteria

A
  • They can live and reproduce on their own
  • They are relatively large compared to a virus
  • They mutate slowly and so it can be treated with antibiotics
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4
Q

Cilia and flagella

A

helps the cell (bacteria) to move to different locations/ directions

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5
Q

Cell wall

A

forms a protective outer layer that prevents damage from outside and also bursting of internal pressure is high

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6
Q

Cell membrane

A

controls entry and exit of substances, pumping some of them in by active transport

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7
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

A

a site of protein synthesis

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8
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

stores, modifies and packs proteins

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9
Q

Lysosomes

A

bound by a single membrane. They contain and transport enzymes. They are formed from Golgi vesicles. Contain high concentrations of proteins. Use enzymes to break down ingested food or organelles in the cell

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10
Q

Mitochondrion

A

produces the energy (ATP) that the cells needs in order to function

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11
Q

Plast

A

(I guess they mean chloroplast) used in photosynthesis

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12
Q

Ribosomes

A

Small granular structures that synthesize proteins by translating messenger RNA. Some proteins stay in the cell and others are secreted

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13
Q

Centriole

A

Centrioles are involved in the organization of the mitotic spindle and in the completion of cytokinesis

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14
Q

Nucleus

A

the region where the DNA is stored

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15
Q

Nucleolus

A

A small body in the nucleus of a cell that contains protein and RNA and is the site for the synthesis of ribosomal RNA and for the formation of ribosomal subunits

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16
Q

From cell to tissue of different structures and functions (plant and animal tissues as well)

A
  • Cells in a multicellular organism develop in different ways and can therefore carry out different functions. This is called differentiation.
  • The cell needs different genes to develop in different ways.
  • Each cell has all of these genes, so could develop in any way.
  • The cells will express some of their genes but no other.
  • The exact role of a tissue in an organism depends on what types of cells it contains. For example, the endothelial tissue that lines the human gastrointestinal tract consists of several cell types. Some of these cells absorb nutrients from the digestive contents, whereas others (called goblet cells) secrete a lubricating mucus that helps the contents travel smoothly.
  • However, the multiple cell types within a tissue don’t just have different functions. They also have different transcriptional programs and may well divide at different rates. Proper regulation of these rates is essential to tissue maintenance and repair. The spatial organization of the cells that form a tissue is also central to the tissue’s function and survival.
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17
Q

What Is the Source of New Cells for Tissues?

A

-Without cell division, long-term tissue survival would be impossible. Inside every tissue, cells are constantly replenishing themselves through the process of division, although the rate of turnover may vary widely between different cell types in the same tissue.
-Many differentiated cells lose this ability, tissues maintain stem cells to serve as a reservoir of undifferentiated cells. Stem cells typically have the capacity to mature into many different cell types. Transcription factors — proteins that regulate which genes are transcribed in a cell — appear to be essential to determining the pathway particular stem cells take as they differentiate.
-Plants, however, exhibit a growth pattern called indeterminate growth
-The plant retains areas where rapidly dividing, undifferentiated cells remain all through the life of the plant
-These areas are called meristems (apical and lateral)
oMeristematic tissue continues to rapidly divide producing undifferentiated cells which may eventually differentiate to form the tissue and cell types discussed above
-Plants do not have a pre-programmed body plan
oThere are constants like leaf shape and branching patters (opposite, alternate, etc.) but you can never predict where a new branch will come about on a tree…
-Plants continue to grow throughout their life

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18
Q

Mitosis

A
  • During prophase the spindle microtubules grow and extend from each pole to the equator. Also chromosomes super coil and become short and bulky and the nuclear envelope breaks down.
  • During metaphase the chromatids move to the equator and the spindle microtubules from each pole attach to each centromere on opposite sides.
  • During anaphase the spindle microtubules pull the sister chromatids apart splitting the centromeres. This splits the sister chromatids into chromosomes. Each identical chromosome is pulled to opposite poles.
  • During telophase the spindle microtubules break down and the chromosomes uncoil and so are no longer individually visible. The nuclear membrane breaks and reforms. The cell then divides by cytokinesis to form two daughter cells with identical genetic nuclei.
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19
Q

Nucleic acids (anabolic and catabolic pathways)

A
  • Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides. Nucleotide synthesis is an anabolic mechanism generally involving the chemical reaction of phosphate, pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base.
  • Destruction of nucleic acid is a catabolic reaction. Additionally, parts of the nucleotides or nucleobases can be salvaged to recreate new nucleotides. Both synthesis and degradation reactions require enzymes to facilitate the event.
  • Defects or deficiencies in these enzymes can lead to a variety of diseases.
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20
Q

Carbohydrates (anabolic and catabolic pathways)

A
  • Involves the breaking down process, catabolism
  • The carbohydrates that enter the body are broken down with the help of enzymes. The breaking down process starts in the mouth, where the food is chewed and the enzymes in the saliva start catalyzing the large chain into smaller parts.
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21
Q

Lipids (anabolic and catabolic pathways)

A
  • It is both the building up process and building down process, anabolism and catabolism.
  • The breakdown of lipids to get energy and the build up to store energy
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22
Q

Photosynthesis (anabolic and catabolic pathways)

A
  • Involves the building up process, anabolism.

- The production of sugar, starch, from the conversion of carbon dioxide, water and energy from the sun

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23
Q

Respiration

A
  • Respiration is the transportation of oxygen from the air in the lungs to the tissue cells, and the transportation of carbon dioxide inside the cells out of the body.
  • The exchange of gases (O2 & CO2) between the alveoli and the blood occurs by simple diffusion.
  • Diffusion requires a concentration gradient. So, the concentration (or pressure) of O2 in the alveoli must be kept at a higher level than in the blood and the concentration (or pressure) of CO2 in the alveoli must be kept at a lower level than in the blood. We do this, of course, by breathing.
  • To exhale: relaxation of external intercostal muscles & diaphragm > return of diaphragm, ribs, & sternum to resting position > restores thoracic cavity to preinspiratory volume > increases pressure in lungs > air is exhaled
  • The lungs are made up of thousands of thousands of alveoli, this provides a large surface area of the lungs to absorb oxygen and exchange it with carbon dioxide. The alveoli are made up of a thin cell layer, epithelium cells.
  • Partial pressure is the pressure of all the gasses in a mixture of gases
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24
Q

Ingestion

A
  • Taking in food or other substances (eating and drinking)

- Ingestion starts at the mouth

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25
Q

Excretion

A
  • It is the process which by waste products of metabolism and other non-useful materials are eliminated from an organism.
  • In humans for example: the human body is missing the enzyme cellulose and so we cannot break down cellulose. The cellulose fibers are there for excreted from the body due to the fact that it cannot be broken down and used as an energy source/material.
  • Liquids are excreted via the urethra.
  • Solids are excreted via anus.
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26
Q

Endocrine glands

A
  • Endocrine glands secrete the hormones directly into the blood stream (not via duct)
  • Some major endocrine glands, pituitary gland (FSH, LH, GH, TSH, oxytocin, ADH hormones), thyroid gland (thyroid hormone), pancreas gland (glucagon, insulin).
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27
Q

Pathogen

A

is an organism or a virus that causes a disease

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28
Q

Antigen

A

is a chemical that if foreign and causes an immune response

29
Q

The first line of defense:

A

The skin

Mucus lining

30
Q

Active immunity:

A

is due to the production of antibodies by the organism, after the body´s defenses have been exposed to antigens (natural or by injections)

31
Q

Passive immunity:

A

gained antibodies from another source than the own body (e.g. from mother to child via injection)

32
Q

Systemic circulation (heart)

A

the blood takes up carbon dioxide from the tissues and brings it to the lungs (pump towards the heart).

33
Q

Pulmonary circulation (heart)

A

the blood takes up oxygen from the lungs and brings it to the body tissues (pump away from the heart)

34
Q

What is the function of the coronary circulation?

A

Coronary circulatory system provides a blood supply to the myocardium (the heart muscle).

35
Q

Locomotion:

A
  • It is the ability to move from place to place

- Most animals have legs in order to move to different places, birds have wings, fish etc. have fins to swim

36
Q

Describe Animal Reproduction and Development

A

Most animals are diploid organisms (their body, or somatic, cells are diploid) with haploid reproductive (gamete) cells produced through meiosis. The majority of animals undergo sexual reproduction. This fact distinguishes animals from fungi, protists, and bacteria where asexual reproduction is common or exclusive. However, a few groups, such as cnidarians, flatworms, and roundworms, undergo asexual reproduction, although nearly all of those animals also have a sexual phase to their life cycle.

37
Q

Mendel’s genetics:

A

Mendel´s law of independent assortment states that: Allele pairs separate independently during gamete formation which means that the transmission of traits to offspring are independent to one another.

38
Q

What is ethology?

A

Ethology is the study the behavior of animals living in the wild (the scientists mostly focused on inert behavior patterns of species)

39
Q

What are the Characteristics of the Ethological Approach

A
  • Naturalistic observation – observation of the animals in their natural environments, undisturbed by the presence of the observers.
  • Focus on “species typical” behavior – ethologists work to identify specific patterns of behavior that occur in every member of the species. Although learning has not been entirely ignored by ethologists, the main emphasis is on innate behavior.
  • Classification – behavior patterns are classified according to function (purpose served, e.g., communication, navigation, territorial defense) and form (what specific actions occur, in what sequence, etc).
  • Experimental testing of hypotheses – naturalistic observation may suggest what stimulus conditions serve to trigger a given behavior, but only experiments can actually nail down the specific requirements.
40
Q

Classification

A
  • a method of scientific taxonomy used to group and categorize organisms hierarchically
  • Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
41
Q

Endocytosis

A

entering the cell

42
Q

Exocytosis

A

leaving the cell

43
Q

What is the resting potential

A

So, when an axon is at rest, the anions give it a negative charge, the sodium pumps keep sodium out and potassium in, and the sodium gates and potassium gates are all closed. Because of the positive-negative difference between the inside and outside, this resting state is called a resting potential

44
Q

What is the threshold

A

When changes occurring in the membranes of the dendrites and the body of the cell reach the axon, the sodium gates respond: some of them open and let sodium ions in, so that the inside starts to become less negative. If this reaches a certain level, called a threshold, more sodium gates respond and let more ions in…

45
Q

Action potential

A

a moving exchange of ions that runs along the length of the axon. So many sodium ions get in that, for a very short time, the difference between the outside and inside of the cell is actually reversed: The inside is positive and the outside negative.

46
Q

Nutrition

A
  • the components in foods that an organism utilizes to survive and grow. Macronutrients provide the bulk energy for an organism’s metabolic system to function, while micronutrients provide the necessary cofactors for metabolism to be carried out.
  • Organic nutrients include carbohydrates, fats, proteins (or their building blocks, amino acids), and vitamins. Inorganic chemical compounds such as dietary minerals, water, and oxygen may also be considered nutrients. A nutrient is said to be “essential” if it must be obtained from an external source, either because the organism cannot synthesize it or produces insufficient quantities. Nutrients needed in very small amounts are micronutrients and those that are needed in larger quantities are called macronutrients. The effects of nutrients are dose-dependent and shortages are called deficiencies
47
Q

Regulation

A
  • The adaption of form or behaviour of an organism to changed condition
  • Example: the regulation of the blood sugar level, carbon dioxide level etc.
48
Q

Nervous regulation

A
  • Nerve impulses from the receptor cells, sensory neurons, are send to the central nervous system with the help of neurons.
  • The dendrites receive the neurotransmitters by endocytosis and send the impulse further to the axon and then to the end plates of the neuron.
  • At the endplates calcium ions are entering the endplates, which pushes the vesicles with the neutron transmitters to be releases at the synapse by exocytosis.
49
Q

The nervous system

A

The central nervous system is made up of the brain and the spinal chord

50
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

It is a division of the peripheral nervous system that influences the function of internal organs. The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates the heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and its role is mediated by two different components

51
Q

Spinal chord

A
  • It is a part of the central nervous system
  • The spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission of neural signals between the brain and the rest of the body but also contains neural circuits that can independently control numerous reflexes and central pattern generators.
52
Q

The brain

A
  • It is a part of the central nervous system CNS

- It if the part of high complex function

53
Q

Memory and sleep

A
  • Memory is the cognitive process whereby experiences, learning and recognition are recalled. Memory “formation” is a product of brain plasticity, the structural changes within synapses that create associations between stimuli. Stimuli are encoded within milliseconds, however the long-term maintenance of memories can take additional minutes, days, or even years to fully consolidate and become a stable memory (more resistant to change or interference). Therefore, the formation of a specific memory occurs rapidly, but the evolution of a memory is often an ongoing process.
  • Memory processes have been shown to be stabilized and enhanced (sped up and/or integrated) by nocturnal sleep and even daytime naps. Certain sleep stages are noted to improve an individual’s memory, although this is task specific.
54
Q

Perception

A

It is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the environment. All perception involves signals in the nervous system, which in turn result from physical or chemical stimulation of the sense organs. For example, vision involves light striking the retina of the eye, smell is mediated by odor molecules, and hearing involves pressure waves. Perception is not the passive receipt of these signals, but is shaped by learning, memory, expectation, and attention

55
Q

Innate Behavior:

A

develops independently from the environmental context

56
Q

Learned behavior:

A

develops due to experience

57
Q

Ecology

A

the relationship between organism and their environment

58
Q

Ecosystems

A

the interactions between a community of living organisms in a particular area and its nonliving environment

59
Q

Food chain

A

A food chain is a series of transfer of energy and nutrition in an ecosystem

60
Q

Populations

A

organisms of the same group or species, which live in the same geographical area, and have the capability of interbreeding

61
Q

Population of an area is described on the basis of three parameters:

A
  • Number and kind of individuals of a species
  • A given space or an area.
  • Time
62
Q

Community

A

a group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area

63
Q

Properties of the genetic material

A

There are three funda¬mental characteristics of genes:

(i) Storage and expression of hereditary information’s (phenotype),
(ii) Replication and transmission to offspring,
(iii) Variability

64
Q

Mutation

A

Brings new combinations of alleles

65
Q

Recombination

A

Brings new alleles but only when crossing over and random orientation has occured

66
Q

The genetic code

A

The genetic code is universal and cannot be changed

67
Q

Modes of inheritance (discontinuous traits)

A
  • Variation, the small differences that exist between individuals, can be described as being either discontinuous or continuous.
  • Discontinuous variation is where individuals fall into a number of distinct classes or categories, and is based on features that cannot be measured across a complete range. You either have the characteristic or you don’t. Blood groups are a good example: you are either one blood group or another - you can’t be in between. Such data is called discrete (or categorical) data.
  • Discontinuous variation is controlled by alleles of a single gene or a small number of genes. The environment has little effect on this type of variation
68
Q

Linkage

A

is the tendency of alleles that are located close together on a chromosome to be inherited together during meiosis. Genes whose loci are nearer to each other are less likely to be separated onto different chromatids during chromosomal crossover, and are therefore said to be genetically linked

69
Q

Population genetics

A

is the study of genetic variation within populations, and involves the examination and modelling of changes in the frequencies of genes and alleles in populations over space and time. Many of the genes found within a population will be polymorphic - that is, they will occur in a number of different forms (or alleles).

Entrance exam Hungary (3 decks)

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