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biology Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Prokaryotic Cells

A

Definition: Unicellular organisms that lack membrane-bound organelles.
Characteristics: Small and simple cells, large surface area to volume (SA
) ratio, optimal nutrient intake.
Examples: Bacteria and archaea.

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2
Q

Eukaryotic Cells

A

Definition: Uni- or multicellular organisms with membrane-bound organelles.
Characteristics: Large and complex cells, small SA
ratio, DNA is compartmentalized in a nucleus.
Examples: Plants, animals, fungi, protists.

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3
Q

Prokaryotic Cell Features

A

Cell (plasma) membrane: Controls entry and exit of substances.
Plasmids: Small rings containing genetic material.
Cell wall: Provides protection and structural support.
Pili: Hair-like structures for adherence.
Flagella: Tails for locomotion.
Capsule: Layer of complex carbohydrates for protection.

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4
Q

Eukaryotic Cell Organelles

A

Nucleus: Headquarters of the cell, stores DNA.
Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, generates energy.
Ribosomes: Manufacture proteins.
Chloroplasts: Carry out photosynthesis in plant cells.
Golgi apparatus: Prepares and packages proteins for use or export.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER ships materials, smooth ER makes lipid

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5
Q

Cell Theory

A

All organisms are made of cells.
All new cells arise from pre-existing cells.
The cell is the smallest unit of life.

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6
Q

Characteristics of Life

A

Growth and change.
Responsiveness to the environment.
Reproduction and inheritance of traits.
Metabolism and homeostasis.
Cellular composition.

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7
Q

Microscopes

A

Light microscope: Magnification up to 2000x, can view living and non-living specimens.
Fluorescent microscope: Uses fluorescent markers to target specific structures.
Electron microscope (TEM & SEM): High magnification, only views non-living specimens.
Confocal laser scanning microscope: Creates 3D models by combining layers of images.

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8
Q

Membrane Proteins

A

Transport: Facilitates diffusion/active transport.
Receptor: Receives signals from other cells or hormones.
Recognition: Cellular ID markers.
Adhesion: Interactions between cells/extracellular matrix.

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9
Q

Photosynthesis Stages

A

Light-dependent stage: Splits water molecules, produces oxygen, hydrogen ions, and ATP.
Light-independent stage: Uses carbon dioxide and hydrogen to produce glucose.

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10
Q

Cell Functions

A

Diffusion: Movement from high to low concentration.
Osmosis: Water moves from low solute concentration to high solute concentration across a semipermeable membrane.
Active transport: Moves molecules from low to high concentration, requires energy.

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11
Q

Enzymes

A

Function: Biological catalysts that lower activation energy.
Factors affecting activity: Temperature, pH level, and substrate concentration.

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12
Q

Magnification Levels:

A

10x (ocular lens) × 4x (objective lens) = 40x (low magnification)
10x (ocular lens) × 10x (objective lens) = 100x (high magnification)
10x (ocular lens) × 40x (objective lens) = 400x (high magnification)

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13
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Semi-liquid environment that suspends organelles

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14
Q

Nucleus

A

Function: Control center of the cell; houses DNA.

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15
Q

Chloroplasts

A

Location: Only in plant cells.
Function: Site of photosynthesis.

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16
Q

Ribosomes

A

Function: Protein synthesis; composed of RNA and proteins

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17
Q

Mitochondria

A

Function: Energy production through cellular respiration.

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18
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

Function: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for secretion.

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19
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

A

Rough ER: Synthesizes proteins.
Smooth ER: Synthesizes lipids, detoxifies chemicals, and stores calcium

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20
Q

Lysosomes

A

Function: Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste materials.

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21
Q

Vacuoles

A

Function: Storage of nutrients, water, and waste

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22
Q

Cell Membrane

A

Function: Controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell; selectively permeable

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23
Q

Membrane Structure: Fluid Mosaic Model

A

Phospholipid Bilayer: Composed of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
Cholesterol: Stabilizes the membrane, making it less permeable to water-soluble substances.
Proteins:
Channel Proteins: Facilitate passive transport of molecules.
Carrier Proteins: Facilitate active transport.

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24
Q

Transport Mechanisms

A

Diffusion:
Definition: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
Driven By: Concentration gradient.
Osmosis:
Definition: Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from low solute concentration to high solute concentration.
Active Transport:
Definition: Movement of molecules against the concentration gradient.
Requires: Energy (ATP) and carrier proteins.

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25
Q

Endocytosis:

A

Definition: Process by which the cell engulfs material into a vesicle.
Types:
Phagocytosis: Engulfment of solid particles.
Pinocytosis: Engulfment of liquid.

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26
Q

Exocytosis

A

Definition: The process of expelling materials from the cell via vesicles.
Examples: Release of enzymes, antibodies, and waste.

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27
Q

Organic Compounds:

A

Carbohydrates: Serve as energy sources and structural components (e.g., glucose, starch).
Lipids: Energy storage molecules with hydrophobic properties (e.g., fats, oils).
Proteins: Structural and functional roles (e.g., enzymes, hemoglobin).
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA, which carry genetic information and assist in protein synthesis.

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28
Q

Inorganic Compounds

A

Water: Universal solvent, essential for biochemical reactions.
Minerals: Important for cellular processes (e.g., sodium, calcium).
Gases: Involved in respiration and photosynthesis (e.g., oxygen, carbon dioxide).

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29
Q

Light-Dependent photosynthesis

A

Location: Chloroplast (thylakoid membrane).
Function: Splits water into oxygen, hydrogen ions, and electrons. Produces ATP.

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30
Q

Light-Independent photosynthesis (calvin cycle)

A

Location: Chloroplast (stroma).
Function: Uses carbon dioxide and hydrogen to produce glucose. ATP from the light-dependent stage powers this reaction.

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31
Q

Cellular Waste Removal

A

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide: Removed via diffusion.
Excess Water: Removed by osmosis.
Waste from Protein Breakdown: Exits through diffusion or exocytosis.

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32
Q

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

A

Temperature: Optimal temperature needed for maximum activity.
pH Level: Enzymes work best in specific pH ranges.
Substrate Concentration: Enzyme activity increases with more substrate until saturation occurs.

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33
Q

Unicellular Organisms

A

Definition: Single-celled organisms, either prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
Examples: Paramecium, bacteria.
Functionality: One cell performs all life processes.

34
Q

Colonial Organisms

A

Definition: Group of identical single-celled organisms forming colonies.
Functionality: Each cell can independently perform life processes, yet they work together.

35
Q

Multicellular Organisms

A

Definition: Composed of many different types of cells that specialize to perform specific functions.
Dependency: Cells cannot function independently

36
Q

Cell Specialization and Differentiation

A

Order: Cells → Tissues → Organs → Systems.
Specialization: Cells are specialized to perform distinct functions within tissues and organs.

37
Q

Plant Systems and Tissues

A

Shoot System:
Function: Provides structural support and a transport pathway between roots and leaves.
Root System:
Function: Anchors the plant, absorbs water via osmosis, and nutrients via active transport.
Types of Plant Tissue:
Dermal Tissue:

Function: Acts as the skin of the plant for protection.
Ground Tissue:

Function: Fills the space between vascular and dermal tissue.
Vascular Tissue:

Xylem: Transports water and minerals from roots to leaves.
Phloem: Transports sugars (sap) from leaves to other parts of the plant.

38
Q

Xylem

A

Transports water and minerals from roots to leaves.

39
Q

Phloem

A

Transports sugars (sap) from leaves to other parts of the plant.

40
Q

Stomata

A

Function: Regulate gas exchange and control water loss by adjusting the size of the stomatal pore.
Environmental Triggers: Humidity, CO₂ concentration, light intensity.
Cycle: Opens during the day, closes at night.

41
Q

Xylem

A

Function: Transports water and dissolved minerals from roots to leaves.
Components:
Tracheids: Water and ions pass through small holes (pits) between tracheids.
Xylem Vessels: Hollow tubes formed from dead cells for water transport.

42
Q

Phloem

A

Function: Transports sugars (products of photosynthesis) from leaves to the rest of the plant.
Components:
Sieve Tube Cells: Create channels for sugar transport.
Companion Cells: Support sieve tube cells (function unclear).
Translocation: Movement of sugars from regions of high pressure (near production) to low pressure (where sugars are used/stored).

43
Q

Open Circulatory System

A

Function: Blood (hemolymph) bathes organs directly in an open cavity.
Examples: Invertebrates like insects and spiders.
Key Features:
One or more hearts.
Open-ended vessels return blood to the heart.

44
Q

Closed Circulatory System

A

Function: Blood circulates within a network of blood vessels.
Examples: Vertebrates like fish, frogs, and mammals.
Key Features:
Heart pumps blood through sealed arteries and veins.
Arteries withstand high pressure due to their thick elastic walls.

45
Q

Cardiovascular System

A

Type: Closed circulatory system.
Function: Uses blood to transport oxygen, nutrients, and waste throughout the body.

46
Q

Lymphatic System

A

Type: Open circulatory system.
Function: Circulates lymph fluid, helping maintain osmotic balance and immune defense.

47
Q

Selection Pressure in an Ecosystem
Biotic Factors (Living Components)

A

Seasonal availability and abundance of food.
Number of competitors, mates, and predators.
Variety of disease-causing organisms.

48
Q

Selection Pressure in an Ecosystem Abiotic Factors (Non-Living Components)

A

Temperature (affects enzymes in cells).
Light availability, water availability.
Availability of gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide).
Soil type, exposure to natural forces (wind, tides, waves).

49
Q

Structural Adaptations

A

Changes in the shape or size of body parts.
Example: Kangaroo’s powerful legs help it hop quickly.

50
Q

Physiological Adaptations:

A

Relate to how an organism functions.
Example: Human sweating helps with heat loss.

51
Q

Behavioral Adaptations

A

Relate to how an organism responds to its environment.
Example: Penguins huddle together to stay warm.

52
Q

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

A

Variation: In any population, individuals vary.
Survival of the Fittest: Individuals with favorable adaptations survive and reproduce.
Passing Traits: Favorable traits are passed to offspring.
Evolution Over Time: Favorable traits become more common in the population.

53
Q

Genetic Diversity

A

The total number of genetic characteristics in a species’ genetic makeup, influenced by selection pressures.

54
Q

Species Diversity

A

The variety of different species in an ecological community

55
Q

Ecosystem Diversity

A

The variety of ecosystems found in a region.

56
Q

Key Terms of Evolution
Microevolution:

A

Small evolutionary changes within a population, such as changes in gene frequency over a short time.
Example: Evolution of horses.

57
Q

Key Terms of Evolution
Speciation

A

The formation of new species due to factors like geographical isolation.

58
Q

Key Terms of Evolution Macroevolution:

A

Large-scale evolutionary changes that occur over millions of years, resulting in new species.
Example: Fossil records of horses’ leg bones and teeth.

59
Q

Evolutionary Patterns
Divergent Evolution:

A

Species evolve from a common ancestor but diverge into different forms due to environmental pressures.
Isolation is key to the formation of distinct species.

60
Q

Evolutionary Patterns Convergent Evolution:

A

Unrelated species develop similar traits due to similar environmental pressures.
Example: Dolphins (mammal), sharks (fish), and penguins (bird) all have streamlined bodies for aquatic environments.

61
Q

Evolutionary Patterns Punctuated Equilibrium

A

Evolution occurs in bursts of rapid change, followed by long periods of stability.

62
Q

Evolutionary Patterns Gradualism

A

Evolutionary changes occur gradually over a long time, as originally proposed by Darwin.

63
Q

Biochemical Evidence for Evolution
Advantages:

A

Allows for quantitative comparisons between organisms.
Provides detailed information, particularly through DNA analysis.

64
Q

Biochemical Evidence for Evolution
disadvantages:

A

Techniques are complex and expensive.
DNA provides the most detailed but resource-intensive information.

65
Q

Habitat

A

The place where an organism lives

66
Q

Population

A

All members of a species living in a particular habitat.

67
Q

Community

A

Different species populations living in the same place at the same time.

68
Q

Niche

A

The role an organism plays within its environment

69
Q

Ecosystem

A

A combination of all the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) features in an area.
Dynamic: Continuously influenced by changing populations and physical environments.

70
Q

Logistic Model of Population Growth
Initial Stage:

Slow growth due to a small population and low offspring numbers.
Exponential Growth:

Population grows rapidly as birth and immigration exceed death and emigration.
Limiting Factors:

Density-dependent factors (disease, competition, predation) slow growth. Resources become scarce as population grows.
Carrying Capacity:

Population reaches a stable maximum that the environment can support. Growth plateaus.

A
71
Q

Intraspecific Competition

A

Competition within a species for mates, food, and shelter

72
Q

Interspecific Competition

A

Competition between species for resources, leading to survival advantages or adaptations.

Short-Term Impact: Winner’s population increases, loser’s decreases.

Long-Term Impact: Can lead to environmental degradation, reduced biodiversity, and possibly extinction.

73
Q

Mutualism

A

Both species benefit.
Example: Clownfish and sea anemone (protection for the fish, cleaning for the anemone).

74
Q

Commensalism

A

One species benefits, while the other is neither harmed nor helped.
Example: A bird nesting in a tree

75
Q

Parasitism

A

One organism (parasite) benefits at the expense of another (host), though it typically doesn’t kill the host.

76
Q

Niche Concepts

A

Fundamental Niche:

Ideal conditions where an organism thrives without competition, predators, or parasites.
Realised Niche:

The actual conditions and restrictions organisms face due to competition and environmental factors.

77
Q

Evidence for Past Ecosystems and Evolution

A

Geological Evidence:

Banded iron formations show the shift from anaerobic to aerobic conditions due to increasing oxygen levels.
Palaeontological Evidence (Fossils):

Fossils, including microfossils, provide clues about past climates and environments.
Ice Core Drilling:

Provides a historical record of gases and dust, revealing past climate conditions.
Dating Methods:

Relative Dating: Determines if a fossil or rock is older or younger than another.
Absolute Dating: Provides a precise age using radiometric methods (e.g., carbon dating).

78
Q

Extinction Factors

A

Leading Cause: Habitat loss, overexploitation, introduced species, and disruption of ecological relationships.
Bottleneck Effect: A shrinking population results in reduced genetic variation, making extinction more likely.

79
Q

Biodiversity

A

Genetic Diversity: Variation within a species.
Species Diversity: Variety of species in an ecosystem.
Ecosystem Diversity: Variety of ecosystems within a broader area.

80
Q

Greenhouse Effect and Climate Change

A

Greenhouse Effect:
Energy absorbed by the Earth is released back into the atmosphere as heat, and greenhouse gases reflect some heat back, keeping the planet warm.
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect:
Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, increase greenhouse gases, disrupting the balance and causing global warming.

81
Q
A

biology year 11 (1 decks)

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