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Biology Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction?

A

asexual=> genetically identical cells, cell division=mitosis

sexual=> genetically different cells, fusion of sex cells= meiosis

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2
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

maintenance of internal environment of organism; maintenance of cell structure+arrangement, pH, body temperature

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3
Q

What is the use of deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning in the scientific method?

A

Deductive reasoning=> to test a hypothesis “If…then” statement
Inductive reasoning=> formulating a hypothesis, “educated guess” based on specific info, facts, observations

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4
Q

What is an experimental variable?
What is a dependent variable?
What is a controlled variable?

A

experimental=> changeable, differs in experimental group to control group
dependent=> expected to change
controlled=> stays the same in both groups (won’t be changed)

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5
Q

Determine the # of protons and neutrons given the atomic number and mass number of an atom.

A

atomic # (upper left corner) => protons
protons+neutrons=>inside the nucleus
(neutrons=neutral, no charge)
Atomic mass number= below symbol-> total number of protons + neutrons
- to figure out neutrons-> atomic mass # - atomic number (upper left corner) = neutrons

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6
Q

Determine whether an atom is inert or reactive based on its atomic number.

A

inert=full outer shell -> atom is happy, no reaction with other atoms
reactive=outer shell is not full yet-> atom is looking for electrons, reaction with other atoms

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7
Q

How do ionic and covalent bonds form?

A

ionic= oppositely charged ions attract each other (i.e. NaCl); charged atoms are called ions (Na+, Cl-)
ionic bond= transfer of electrons
covalent(carbon)=atoms share electrons, when reactive atoms(outer shel not filled) share atoms with other reactive atoms, each atom fills outer shell by sharing
covalent bond=sharing electrons

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8
Q

What is oxidation?

A

electrons/hydrogens are removed/lost from molecule, energy is released, bonds are broken,

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9
Q

Reduction?

A

electrons/hydrogens are gained from molecule, energy is required, bonds are formed

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10
Q

What are isotopes?

A

=atoms, have same # of protons but different # of neutrons (i.e. carbon can have 6 protons but 6,7,or 8 neutrons=>differs in neutrons->other carbons=isotopes)

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11
Q

What type of bond connects the hydrogens to the oxygen WITHIN one water molecule?

A

covalent bond=hydrogen+oxygen share electrons

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12
Q

What type of bond attracts one water molecule to another?

What means cohesive and adhesive?

A 
hydrogen bond (easily breakable apart=when water drops off the sink)
cohesive= attracted to other water molecules
adhesive=attracted to most other substances
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13
Q

What is a hydrogen bond? Is it strong or weak?

A

Hydrogen bond= constantly forming and breaking, therefore, it’s a WEAK bond

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14
Q

What are the relative H+ and OH- ion concentrations at neutral pH? Acid pH? Basic pH?

A

H+ => 10-7
OH- => 10-7
-> neutral pH
-> acidic= higher amount of H+, lesser amount of OH-
-> basic= higher amount of OH-, lesser amount of H+

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15
Q

Determine whether a molecule is organic from its molecular formula.

A

organic=> must contain C (carbon) and H (hydrogen)

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16
Q

What are the four major categories of organic molecules, and what elements does each contain?

A

Carbohydrates= C H O
Lipids = C H O
Proteins = C H O N S
Nucleic acids = C H O N P

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17
Q

Determine whether a molecule is hydrophobic or hydrophilic from its molecular formula.

A

hydrophobic(afraid of water, does not dissolve in water)= no charges b/c carbon+hydrogens form NON-polar covalent bond
hydrophillic(likes water, dissolves in water)= partial charges b/c oxygen forms polar covalent bond with carbon and hydrogens

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18
Q

What are monosaccharides and disaccharides also referred to?

A

Sugars

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19
Q

What are the functions of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis?

A

dehydration synthesis= joins 2 monomers to a dimer (1H + 1OH are taken out) water is taken away->dehydrieren
hydrolysis= breaking down 1 dimer into 2 monomers(1H+1OH are added) water is added to molecule-> hydrieren

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20
Q

What are the major polysaccharides,their structure and characteristics. Which are indigestible to humans?

A

Starch=Polymer of Glucose, energy storage (plants)
Glycogen= Polymer of Glucose, energy storage (animals)
Cellulose=Polymer of Glucose, support (cell walls)
Chitin=Polymer of Glucose, support (skeleton, cell walls)

Cellulose + Chitin => NOT DIGESTIBLE in humans

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21
Q

What are the examples of lipids that were included in the study guide?

A

Fats, Oils, Waxes, Phospholipids, Steroids

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22
Q

What is the difference between solid fats and liquid oils in terms of being saturated or unsaturated?

Lipids consist out of GLYCEROL+3FATTY ACIDS
GLYCEROL has 3 carbon molecules (C) + 3 hydroxyl groups (OH)

A

saturated(more solid)=no double bonds in CARBON chain (straight chain, fatty acids packed together + solid)
unsaturated(less solid)= one double bond in HYDROCARBON chain-> monounsaturated, more double bonds in Hydrocarbon chain-> polyunsaturated (bend chains, fatty acids slide past each other, cannot pack tightly)

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23
Q

How can you recognize amino acids from their molecular structure?

A

amino acids=monomers of proteins; have 2 functional groups: amino group {NH2}, carboxyl {C(=O)OH}

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24
Q

Given a molecular structure, identify the molecule as a carbohydrate, amino acid, saturated fatty acid, or unsaturated fatty acid.

A

carbohydrate= C H O
Amino Acid= has groups {NH2} and {C(=O)OH} and a R group
saturated= no double bond in Carbon chain
unsaturated= double bond in hydrocarbon chain

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25
Q

What are the monomers that compose polypeptides (proteins)?

A

amino acids

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26
Q

What are antigens?
What are antibodies?
_______ stimulate your body to produce ________.

A

antigens=foreign molecules entering the body
antibodies= chemicals that the body makes to stop pathogens (Krankheitserreger) from infecting other cells.
Antigens stimulate your body to produce antibodies.

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27
Q

Through what organs and in what order does food/waste pass as it moves from mouth to anus?

A

Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Duodenum (first section of small intestines), Small Intestines, Large Intestines, Rectum, Anus

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28
Q

What are the major functions of the stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and liver?

A

Stomach=mixes hydrochloric acid, enzyme pepsin, and chewed food; food is liquefied (chyme) and digested
Small Intestines= majority of digestion & absorption of nutrients(Capillaries absorb monosaccharides+amino acids into blood, lacteals absorb fatty acids+glycerol)
Large Intestines= reclaim of water from digestive system + return of water to blood, production of vitamin K
Liver= stores glycogen, breaks down hemoglobin to produce bile (stored in gall bladder), dominates amino acids if there is too much (removing amino functional group)

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29
Q

What is the function of the epiglottis?

A

flap that closes off entrance from pharynx to trachea when food is swallowed

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30
Q

As food passes down the digestive tract, where does the digestion of each of the following begin?Starch, protein, fats

A 
Starch= digested in mouth
Proteins= digested in stomach
fats= digested in small intestines (pancreas produces enzymes amylase, lipase, trypsin to break down fats)
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31
Q

What are the five Kingdoms, their characteristics, and representative members?

A

Animalia ( multicelular,eukaryotic, ingestive, heterotroph) = Hawk, Butterfly, People, Hydra

Plantea (multicelular, eukaryotic, photosynthetic, autotroph) Water Lily, Maple Tree, Day Lily, Horsetails, Corn

Fungi (multicelular, eukaryotic, absorptive, heterotroph)= Mushrooms, Bread mold

Protista (uniocelular, eukaryotic) = Euglena, Paramecium, Amoeba

Monera (unicelular, prokaryotic) =Bacterium

NO KINGDOM= Virus

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32
Q

Which are autotrophs, which are heterotrophs, and which include both autotrophs and heterotrophs?

A 
autotroph= plantea
heterotroph= animalia, fungi
BOTH= Protista (Plantea, Animalia, and Fungi-like characteristics) -> Euglena, Paramecium, Amoeba
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33
Q

What are the major similarities and differences between eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells?

A 
similarities= both have DNA, plasma membrane, and ribosomes
differences=  eukaryotic has nuclear membrane around DNA (prokaryotic doesn't), membrane bound organelles (prokaryotic doesn't), and larger cell size (prokaryotic cell is smaller)
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34
Q

What are the major similarities and differences between eukaryotic plant cells and animal cells?

A

similarities = both go through mitosis
differences = plant cell only goes through mitosis - cells are genetically identical, animal cell goes through meiosis and mitosis, cells are genetically different in animal cells,
plant cells= cytokinesis - plant plate
animal cell= cytokinesis-cleavage furrow

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35
Q

What is the general structure and function of the following cellular components?
Ribosome, chloroplast, mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosome

A

Ribosomes=small granules composed of RNA and protein, not membrane bound organelles, assist in production of proteins from amino acids

Chloroplast=round, contains green pigment chlorophyll, carry out reactions of photosynthesis

Mitochondrion=organelles->2 membranes, inner membrane folded into regions(cristae), allows oxidation of organic molecules, uses the energy to produce ATP

endoplasmic reticulum=membraneous canals attached to nuclear envelope, transport and synthesis of molecules

golgi apparatus (UPS)=flattened membrane sacs, processes+packages molecules in vesicles, to transport within cell or secrete them out of membrane

lysosome= membraneous sacs produced by golgi apparatus, contain digestive enzymes to carry out hydrolysis reaction, help cell to digest large molecules or bacteria

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36
Q

What is the endosymbiotic theory, and what evidence supports the theory?

A

chloroplast+mitochondria were once independent prokaryotic cells, became engulfed by other cells, lived symbiotically inside host cell; after evolution bacteria became independent=> today’s mitochondria+chloroplast

37
Q

What do eukaryotic cells contain?

A

DNA in nucleus,
mitochondria,
chloroplast (if plant cell)

38
Q

Be able to describe the processes of endocytosis (phagocytosis and pinocytosis) and exocytosis.

A

endocytosis= ingestion of organic material into cell, material is surrounded by forming a vacuole, material=fluid (pinocytosis)
material=solid (phagocytosis)

{lysosome fuses with vacuole, providing enzymes to break down “food” molecules in vacuole}

exocytosis=secreting organic material out of cell, vesicle/vacuole fuses with membrane secreting indigestible material from the cell

39
Q

What is the structure of the plasma membrane?

A

composed of bilayer of phospholipids, embedded proteins (recognition, transport, receptor), cholesterol (if animal cell),

glycerol=head
fatty acids=tails

40
Q

What are the major differences between active transport and facilitated transport?

A

facilitated transport= transport protein carries molecules from high concentration to less concentration -> energy is NOT required (with the flow)
active transport= transport protein carries molecules from low concentration to high concentration -> energy IS required (against the flow)

41
Q

Solve problems involving the diffusion of oxygen gas into or out of a cell.

A

diffusion= net movement of molecules from high to low concentration (outside cell -> high O2 concentration, inside cell high CO2 concentration => O2 diffuses to inside of cell; CO2 diffuses to outside of cell => to make it equal on both sides)

42
Q

Solve problems involving the osmosis of water into or out of a cell.

A

osmosis=diffusion of water molecules across membrane
- net flow of water from more water to less water (more water outside cell, less water inside cell->water flows inside cell to make it equal)

43
Q

Be able to apply the terms isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic.

A

hypertonic (more pulling power) = water leaves cell -> cell shrinks
hypotonic (less pulling power) = water comes in cell -> cell blows up
isotonic (equal pulling power) = water level is SAME inside+outside of cell

44
Q

What are the following: Metabolism? Anabolism? Catabolism?

A 
Metabolism = biochemical reactions carried out by cell; includes build up reactions (anabolism) + break down reaction (catabolism); energy released by catabolism is used for anabolism
Anabolism = build up reactions (energy is required)
Catabolism = break down reactions (energy is released)
45
Q

What are enzymes, and how do they work? What is the importance of the active site?

A

enzymes = proteins (composed of amino acids) that speed reactions by reducing energy of activation

  • > have a tertiary structure
  • > bind to specific substrate
  • > act as catalyst - lower the energy of activation

(every enzyme has specific pH; increasing temperature increased rate of enzyme action - makes it work better; too high temperature breaks bonds of 3D shape->unfolds enzyme-> becomes inactive)

46
Q

What is a substrate?

A

= molecule that enzymes acts on

substrate bonds to active site of enzyme(docking station)

47
Q

What is the importance of ATP to cells?

A

ATP is form of chemical energy useful to cell.

Each cell needs to produce own ATP.

48
Q

Which requires and which releases energy? ADP + P -> ATP ATP -> ADP + P

A

to make ATP (ADP+P) =requires energy

to make ADP (ATP-P) = releases energy

49
Q

What color of light is the least well absorbed by the photosynthetic pigments?

A

green (reflected)

50
Q

What are the reactants and products of the overall reaction of photosynthesis?

A 
reactants= water+CO2+light energy
products= Carbohydrates, O2
51
Q

What are the three accomplishments of photosynthesis on which humans (and all life) depend?

A
  • release of O2
  • conversion of CO2 into carbohydrates
  • conversion of light energy into ATP
52
Q

What are the reactants and products of the light dependent and light independent reactions?

A

light dependent (in storms of chloroplast)

reactants: light energy, H2O, ADP+P, NADP+
products: O2, ATP, NADPH

light independent (in thylakoid membranes of chloroplast)

reactants: CO2, ATP, NADPH
products: Carbohydrates, ADP+P, NADP+

53
Q

How does the chemiosmotic mechanism result in ATP synthesis in the chloroplast?

A

chemiosmosis = occurs ->chloroplast + mitochondrion
mechanism->diffusion of hydrogen ions H+through protein membrane
->ATP synthase, activates reaction ADP+P->ATP

  • chemiosmosis involves diffusion of hydrogen ions through a membrane; force of diffusion provides energy to drive reaction ADP+P to make ATP
  • enzyme “ATP synthase” = membrane protein which hydrogen ions diffuse through
54
Q

What is the purpose of cellular respiration to the cell?

A

to convert energy in form of carbohydrates to energy in form of ATP

nutrients (carbohydrates) -> converted to ATP (useful energy for cell)

55
Q

What occurs in glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport, and where do they occur?

A 
Glycolysis (in cytosol of cell )= chemical breakdown(catabolism) of glucose molecule into 2 molecules of pyruvate 
Krebs cycle(in matrix of mitochondrion )= chemical pathway; uses acetyl CoA as input -> 2CoA=2 ATP,6 NADH, 2 FADH2
electron transport( inner membrane of mitochondrion)= pumps hydrogen ions into cristae to enable chemiosmosis to occur
56
Q

What is fermentation, and how does it differ in animal cells and yeast cells?

A

ATP formation pathwa, doesn’t require O2 to work; utilized energy from organic molecules (i.e. glucose)

57
Q

Beginning with one molecule of glucose, what is the net ATP yield from aerobic respiration?

A

38 ATP

58
Q

Beginning with one molecule of glucose, what is the net ATP yield from fermentation?

A

2 ATP

59
Q

What are the key events in the stages of the cell cycle?

Interphase G1, S, G2, and Mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase

A

G1= period of growth, metabolism, reproduction of organelles in preparation for cell division/mitosis
S= synthesis/replication of DNA (only if cell is dividing)
G2= great deal of protein synthesis/production
prophase= chromatid condenses and coils, nucleus breaks down
metaphase= chromosomes line up in center of cell(attached to spindle fibers)
anaphase= chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of cell by spindle fibers
telophase=

Human nerve+muscle cells remain in G1 phase of interphase.

60
Q

What are sister chromatids, and are they genetically identical or different?

A

sister chromatids=identical parts of chromatid, connected by centromere, both have regions called kinetochores, attach to spindle fibers

sister chromatids = genetically identical

61
Q

Compare and contrast identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins.

A

monozygotic (identical) twins= genetically identical(1 egg fertilized by 1 sperm, first cell division messed up)
dizygotic (fraternal) twins= genetically different (2 eggs fertilized by 2 sperms)

62
Q

Be able to answer detailed questions regarding the human life cycle and related terminology.

A

yeah yeah yeah ;-P

63
Q

What are the major differences between mitosis and meiosis in terms of mechanism and outcome?

A

mitosis meiosis
cells produced: 2 4
homologous chrom.
synapsis: no yes
resulting cells: diploid haploid
outcome
of cells: genet. identical genet. different

64
Q

How many possible genetically different gametes (eggs or sperm) could be produced by one person?

A

male/sperm= n^23 -> n=number of sperm gametes

female/eggs=pre-determined by how many eggs the female has available-> determined at birth
-> n^23 n= number of eggs available in female

65
Q

Recognize diagrams of the stages of mitosis and meiosis.

A

mitosis= interphase (G1, S G2), prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis

meiosis=2 cell divisions
meiosis/cell div.1 (start with 1 cell, result 2 cells)= prophase1, metaphase1, anaphase1, telophase1+cytokinesis
meiosis/cell div.2 (start with 2 cells, result 4 cells)= prophase2, metaphase2, anaphase2, telophase2,

66
Q

In meiosis, during what phases are the homologous chromosomes in pairs?

A

metaphase 1

prophase 1=synapsis+crossing over within sister chromatids

67
Q

Compare and contrast the outcomes of oogenesis and spermatogenesis.

A

spermatogenesis=(meiosis, haploid sperm)

oogenesis= (meiosis, haploid egg/ovum)

68
Q

What is non-disjunction, and what type of abnormality can it cause?

A

non-disjunction= abnormality of meiosis in egg/sperm formation

abnormalities:
- trisomy (3 copies of the same chromosome instead of 2),

  • monosomy (1 copy of chromosome instead of normal 2), sex chromosome monosomy (XO)
  • autosomal (abnormality of when regular chromosome is affected, not sex chromosome X or Y - 23rd pair),
  • autosomal monosomy (lethal during development-> fetuses spontaneously abort)
  • autosomal trisomies (21,18,13), sex-chromosome trisomies (XXY, XXX, XYY)
69
Q

Be able to answer questions about genes, alleles, homozygous, heterozygous, genotype, and phenotype.

A

genes= DNA segments, contain blueprint for production of polypeptide
alleles= variations of SAME gene
homozygous= h2 of SAME alleles for gene (AA,aa)
dominant (AA), recessive (aa)
heterozygous= 2 different alleles for gene (Aa)
genotype= specific genetic makeup of an individual, expressed in allele symbols (Aa, AA, aa)
phenotype=physical makeup of individual

70
Q

Be able to solve genetics problems involving recessive or dominant traits.

A

recessive= a
dominant=A

if recessive- can skip a generation,
if dominant= in every generation

71
Q

Describe the disorders PKU, cystic fibrosis and Huntington Disease in terms of cause and symptoms.

A

PKU=genetic disorder-recessive trait (lack of enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, detected at birth)
cystic fibrosis=genetic disorder, extremely thick mucus due to lack of chloride ion transport-recessive allele/gene
Huntington’s disease= genetic disorder of brain-dominant allele/gene

72
Q

Be able to solve genetics problems involving:

Incomplete dominance, codominance (A, B, AB, O blood types) and X-linkage.

A

incomplete dominance= neither allele is dominant (i.e. snapdragon plant; allele red R1R1 + allele white R2R2= R1R2 allele pink)
codominance=both alleles are fully expressed (i.e. blood type; allele A + allele B= blood type AB)

73
Q

What can traits be influenced by?

A
  • genes

- environment (nutrition, undernourishment-not reaching inherited height)

74
Q

When was DNA (first called nuclein) first discovered?

A

1869, by swiss chemist Friedrich Miescher

75
Q

Was the tetranucleotide hypothesis correct or incorrect?

A

incorrect until 1940s, b/c protein was assumed to be genetic material, not DNA

76
Q

What molecule IS the hereditary molecule?

A

DNA

77
Q

What major contribution did Rosalind Franklin make to the discovery of the structure of DNA?

A

She used x-ray diffraction, helped to clarifying that DNA was a helix shape, width is consistently 2nm, distance between subunits of DNA is 0.34nm

78
Q

What two scientists employed model building as a method to determine the structure of DNA?

A

James Watson, Francis Crick -> built molecular model of DNA helix

79
Q

What is the basic arrangement of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate and base) in DNA?

A

nucleotides=building blocks of DNA
A=T
G=C

80
Q

What are the major steps in DNA replication?

A
  1. ) hydrogen bonds between paired bases (A=T. G=C) break
  2. ) free nucleotides match up with nucleotides in DNA strand (“A” goes with T, “G” goes with C, “T” goes with A, “C” goes with G)
  3. ) result=2 identical DNA strands/molecules

enzyme DNA polymerase -> responsible for DNA replication

81
Q

What is RFLP analysis, and how is it used in DNA fingerprinting?

A

variations in length of DNA fragments when cut with restriction enzyme (restriction endonuclease)

restriction endonucleases=enzymes to CUT DNA at specific sequences; naturally produced by bacteria

82
Q

What are transcription and translation?

A

transcription=process by which mRNA is produced, using DNA as pattern
translation= process by which mRNA serves as blueprint/code for production of polypeptide (tRNA and ribosomes are necessary for translation to occur)

83
Q

What is the function of mRNA? tRNA? Codons? Anticodons? Ribosomes?

A

mRNA (messenger) = used in process of transcription, allows DNA message in nucleus to be carried out into cytoplasm (then translated into a polypeptide)

tRNA (transfer) = decodes mRNA codons by transferring particular amino acids (little round balls hovering over RNA), contains a 3 base sequence called anticodon that pairs with codon on mRNA (carries a particular amino acid)

Codons= three nitrogen bases on mRNA that code for a particular amino acid
anticodons= three nitrogen bases on a tRNA, pairs with a codon on the mRNA

codons start= (AUG) codon which first tRNA bonds in process of translation

codons stop= (UAG, UGA, UAA) codon which no tRNA bonds, signifies the end of translation of polypeptide

ribosomes= tiny structures, composed of protein+RNA; bind to mRNA+coordinate process of translation; ribosomes are composed of a small and large subunit which bind together during process of translation

84
Q

What is the use of restriction endonucleases and ligase in genetic engineering?

A

restriction endonucleases= scissors in genetic engineering accomplishment
ligase= paste/glue (Kleister) in genetic engineering accomplishment

85
Q

What are uses of bacterial genetic engineering?

A

Human insulin
Human growth hormone
Vaccines
enzymes used as cleaning agents

86
Q

Plant genetic engineering?

A
  • for tomatoes not to get mushy, insect resistant plants, flower color, improved nutritional value, etc.
87
Q

Animal genetic engineering?

A
  • modifying animals to have desirable traits
    • > disease resistance
    • > greater milk yields in cows
    • > more nutritional value
    • > cows that produce pharmaceutical proteins in their milk
    • > mice that are models for human genetic disorders for research
  • involves introducing new genes into an organism
    (i. e. inserting gene for human insulin into bacteria, so that bacteria will produce human insulin for pharmaceutical purposes) -> NOT CLONING b/c doesn’t involve altering of genetic material
88
Q

What is human gene therapy?

A

to correct genetic abnormality
abnormality->could result in serious disease by altering cells of body
(to correct sickle cell anemia by genetically altering bone marrow cells which produce red blood cells)

Biology Final (1 decks)

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