Biology Flashcards
Biology NMAT
1
Q
action or process of examining of something
such as phenomena or problem
A
Observation
2
Q
a possible or specific explanation or
phenomenon; scientific guess
A
Hypothesis
3
Q
a statement about whether a theory hypothesis
should be accepted, rejected, or modified based on tests of the
prediction derived from it.
A
Conclusion
4
Q
A research method in which the researcher
manipulates one or more independent variables to observe
their effect on a dependent variable, while controlling for other
factors.
A
Experiment
5
Q
A research technique that involves
systematically analyzing and interpreting the content of various
forms of communication, such as written or verbal language,
images, or media, to identify patterns or themes.
A
Content Analysis
6
Q
A research method that involves analyzing
historical records, documents, or data to study past events or
behaviors, and to draw conclusions or insights about the
present or future
A
Archival Research
7
Q
All organisms share the ff. common characteristics - made up of
A
basic unit of life-cell
8
Q
includes the whole Earth and all its living
organisms
A
Biosphere
9
Q
a community and its physical_
environment
A
Ecosystem
10
Q
the population of all species occupying
the same area
A
Community
11
Q
group of individuals belonging to the
same species occupying a given area at the same
time
A
Population
12
Q
an individual composed of
specialized, interdependent cells arrayed in tissues,
organs and often organ system
A
Multicellular Organism
13
Q
two or more organs interacting
chemically, physically or both
A
Organ System
14
Q
structural unit in which tissues are combined
in specific amounts and patterns that allow them to
perform a common task
A
Organ
15
Q
group of cells with the s a m e specialized
function
A
Tissues
16
Q
smallest living unit, may be
unicellular/multicellular
A
Cell
17
Q
sacs other compartments that separates
activities inside the cell
A
Organelle
18
Q
three or more chains of the same
molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats &
nucleic acids
A
Biomolecule
19
Q
two or more atoms of the same or different
elements bonded together
A
Molecule
20
Q
smallest non-living unit
A
Atom
21
Q
are small, circular pieces of DNA that exist separately from the
chromosomal DNA in bacterial and archaeal cells
A
Plasmids
22
Q
They are often referred to as extrachromosomal elements and
can carry genes that confer some sort of advantage to the
host cell, such as antibiotic resistance, virulence factors, or
metabolic capabilities
A
Plasmids
23
Q
can replicate independently of the host cell’s
genome and can be transferred between cells through
conjugation, transduction, or transformation
A
Plasmids
24
Q
type of plasmid that is responsible for
bacterial conjugation, carrying the genes necessary for the
production of the conjugation pilus and the relaxase enzyme
A
F plasmid
25
This plasmid plays a crucial role in the acquisition
and transfer of new traits among bacteria,
contributing to the evolution and adaptation of
bacterial populations
F plasmid
26
A bacteriophage that displays
lysogenic life cycle in contrast to virulent phage that does
not have the ability to display lysogeny
Temperate phage
27
A bacteriophage, that infects the
bacterial species Escherichia coli
Lambda phase
28
just any plasmid containing an antibiotic
(R)sistance gene
R plasmid
29
are extrachromosomal pieces of DNA that exist separately
from the chromosomal DNA in bacterial cells. They can carry genes
that confer some sort of advantage to the host cell, such as antibiotic
resistance, virulence factors, or metabolic capabilities.
Plasmids
30
have been widely used as tools in genetic engineering and
biotechnology, as they can be manipulated to carry foreign DNA and
used to express genes of interest in a host cell
Plasmids
31
The plasmid
DNA and target DNA containing the gene of interest are
isolated from the host organism using standard DNA
extraction methods
Isolation of Plasmid DNA and Target DNA
32
The plasmid and
target DNA are cut using a restriction enzyme. The
restriction enzyme used should cut the plasmid and target
DNA at the same site to create matching sticky ends
Cutting the Plasmid and Target DNA
33
The plasmid and target
DNA fragments are mixed with DNA ligase, which
catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds between
the matching sticky ends of the plasmid and target DNA
fragments.
Ligation of DNA Fragments
34
The recombinant plasmid is then
inserted into the host organism using transformation
techniques such as heat shock, electroporation, or
chemical transformation.
Transformation
35
The transformed cells are screened for the
presence of the recombinant plasmid using methods such
as PCR or DNA sequencing
Screening
36
Once the presence of the recombinant
plasmid is confirmed, the host organism can be grown in
large quantities to produce the gene of interest
Mass Production
37
CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, DNA
38
consist of sugar (monosaccharides) and
polymers of sugars (disaccharides and polysaccharides)
Carbohydrates
39
The most important monosaccharide
glucose
40
are key metabolites used in the
synthesis of other organic molecules, as well as
the substrates of glycolysis and the products of
photosynthesis
Sugars
41
Glucose-Fructose
Sucrose
42
Glucose-Galactose
Lactose
43
Glucose-Glucose
Maltose
44
Used by plants to store energy
Starch
45
used by animals to store energy
Glycogen
46
used by plants to form rigid walls around cells
glucose
47
used by some animals to form an external skeleton
Chitin
48
are a diverse group of organic molecules that are
characterized by their hydrophobic nature, meaning that they are
insoluble in water
lipids
49
play many
important roles in living organisms, including serving as a source of
energy, a component of cell membranes, and signaling molecules
lipids
50
are composed of building blocks called fatty acids and
glycerol. Fatty acids are long-chain hydrocarbons with a carboxyl
group (-COOH) at one end. Glycerol is a three-carbon alcohol
molecule that has three hydroxyl (-OH) groups.
lipids
51
Linked together by ester bonds through dehydration reactions to
form triglycerides
fatty acids and glycerol
52
the main type of fat in the body
triglycerides
53
are
stored in adipose tissue as a long-term energy reserve that can be
broken down when needed to provide energy for the body
Triglycerides
54
Types of Triglycerides:
1. Saturated fatty acids
2. Unsaturated fatty acids
55
Composed of a glycerol molecule, two fatty acid chains, and a
phosphate group. The phosphate group has a polar head and a
nonpolar tail, which allows it to form a bilayer in cell membranes,
creating a barrier between the cell and its environment
Phospholipids
56
Characterized by a four-ring structure
steroids
57
is a well-known
steroid that is an important component of cell membranes and is also
a precursor to important hormones like testosterone and estrogen
cholesterol
58
FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
1. Energy Storage
2. Structural Components of Cell Membranes
3. Signaling Molecules
4. Insulation and Protection
59
polymers made up of different combinations of 20
commonly occurring amino acid monomers
Proteins
60
have a wide variety of functions,
including structural components of cells and
tissues, transport proteins in the cell’s
membranes, and as catalysts called enzymes
Proteins
61
Connected by a linear sequence through the
formation of peptide bonds by dehydration
synthesis
Proteins
62
Proteins have four levels of physical structure
1. Primary Structure
2. Secondary structure
3. Tertiary Structure
4. Quaternary Structure
63
refers to the specific
linear sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide.
Primary Structure
64
the initial folding
patterns of certain lengths of the
polypeptide chain, such as alpha helices
and beta pleated sheets
Secondary structure
65
refers to the overall
shape in which a polypeptide eventually
folds
Tertiary Structure
66
arises from the
association of two or more folded
polypeptides to form a multi-subunit
protein
Quaternary Structure
67
Protein Synthesis
DNA –transcription- mRNA –translation- Protein
68
transfers specific amino acids to growing
polypeptide chain during translation
tRNA
69
conveys genetic information from DNA to the
ribosome and is encoded in a sequence of
nucleotides
mRNA
70
ribonucleic acid found in the nucleolus of the
cell
nRNA
71
o act as a catalyst
o globular proteins
o Lower energy of activation and increase rate of
reaction
o Are not consumed or altered by reaction
o Do not alter the equilibrium
Enzyme
72
Enzyme inhibition
1. Competitive inhibitors
2. Noncompetitive inhibitors
3. Allosteric inhibitor
73
compete with
substrate by binding to active site
Competitive inhibitors
74
bind to enzyme in
area other than active site
Noncompetitive inhibitors
75
bind to enzyme and
change configuration of enzyme
Allosteric inhibitor
76
made from monomers
called nucleotides
Nucleic Acids (DNA and RNA)
77
A 5 carbon sugar
—either deoxyribose (in DNA) or ribose (in
RNA). A phosphate group —present on a
nucleotide
Nucleotide
78
is a molecule that contains the
genetic instructions for the development and function of all living
organisms
DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
79
are two essential
processes that have revolutionized our understanding of
genetics and molecular biology.
DNA sequencing and protein synthesis
80
is the process of determining the order of
nucleotides (A, C, G, and T) in a DNA molecule
DNA sequencing
81
a type of DNa sequencing, which was
developed in the 1970s and is still widely used today
Sanger sequencing method
82
involves using DNA
polymerase to synthesize new DNA strands, with the
addition of dideoxynucleotides (ddNTPs) that terminate
the DNA strand at specific positions
Sanger sequencing method
83
is the process by which the genetic information in
DNA is used to synthesize proteins.
Protein synthesis
84
Protein synthesis involves two main stages
transcription
and translation
85
DNA Enzymes
1. Permease
2. DNA Ligase
3. Endonucleases
4. tRNA Synthetase
86
An enzyme that facilitates the transport of molecules
across biological membranes. Membranes are selectively
permeable barriers that separate the interior of cells from
their external environment
Permease
87
An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of
phosphodiester bonds between the 3' hydroxyl group of one DNA fragment and the 5' phosphate group of
another DNA fragment
DNA Ligase
88
and is essential for the repair of damaged DNA,
the replication of DNA, and the recombination of DNA
fragments
DNA Ligation
89
An enzymes that cleave DNA at specific sites. They are
used in DNA repair, recombination, and the defense
against foreign DNA such as viruses.
Endonucleases
90
An enzyme that catalyzes the attachment of amino acids
to tRNA molecules during protein synthesis
tRNA Synthetase
91
are
small RNA molecules that act as adapters between the
mRNA code and the amino acids that make up proteins
tRNA
92
contains all DNA in animal cell
Nucleus
93
double phospholipid
bilayer that surrounds nucleus and has pores for RNA to
move out
Nuclear envelope or membrane
94
where rRNA is transcribed and the subunits of
ribosomes are assembled
Nucleolus
95
flattened sacs with
many ribosomes and synthesizes proteins
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
96
modifies and packages proteins for use
in other parts of the cell
Golgi complex
97
contain hydrolytic enzymes that digest
substances
Lysosomes
98
tubular, lipid synthesis
and detoxification of drugs
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
99
vesicles in cytosol involved in production
and breakdown of hydrogen peroxide
Peroxisomes
100
make proteins
Ribosome
101
part of nucleus and distinct during
replication
Chromosomes
102
a network of filaments that determine the
structure and motility of the cell
Cytoskeleton
103
larger than microfilaments; rigid hollow
tubes made from tubulin involved in flagella and cilia
construction and spindle apparatus
Microtubules
104
squeeze membrane together in
phagocytosis and cytokinesis the contractile force in
microvilli and muscle
Microfilaments
105
tail of sperm so it can move
Flagella
106
are found only in fallopian tubes and respiratory tract
of humans
Cilia
107
involved in cell division. Microtubules grow
from it.
Centrosome
108
function in production of flagella and cilia, but
not for microtubule production
Centrioles
109
plays a critical role in the synthesis,
modification, and transport of proteins,The binding of ribosomes to
the outer surface allows for the proper folding and
modification of secretory and membrane proteins
Endoplasmic reticulum
110
separates internal environment from
external environment and allows substances to be transported
in and out of the cell
Plasma Membrane
111
the plasma membrane is selectively
permeable, meaning that it allows some substances to pass
through it, but not others
Selective Permeability
112
It is a direct consequence of the
membrane structure
the Fluid Mosaic Model
113
Functions of membrane proteins
include:
1. Transport, enzymatic activity
2. signal transduction
3. cell communication
114
Cell Membrane Transport :
Against a gradient
Active Cell Membrane Transport
115
Cell Membrane Transport :
Uphill (pump)
Active Cell Membrane Transport
116
Cell Membrane Transport :
ATP Utilization
Active Cell Membrane Transport
117
Cell Membrane Transport :
Usually with carries
Active Cell Membrane Transport
118
Cell Membrane Transport :
specific
Active Cell Membrane Transport
119
Cell Membrane Transport :
Undergoes inhibition
Active Cell Membrane Transport
120
Cell Membrane Transport :
Saturation
Active Cell Membrane Transport
121
Cell Membrane Transport :
Undirectional
Active Cell Membrane Transport
122
Cell Membrane Transport :
Hydrophilic --> Carrier proteins --> ATP is used
Active Cell Membrane Transport
123
Cell Membrane Transport :
(-) lipid bilayer
Active Cell Membrane Transport
124
Cell Membrane Transport :
Living cells
Active Cell Membrane Transport
125
Cell Membrane Transport :
Transcellular
Active Cell Membrane Transport
126
Cell Membrane Transport :
Along a gradient
Passive Cell Membrane Transport
127
Cell Membrane Transport :
Downhill
Passive Cell Membrane Transport
128
Cell Membrane Transport :
No ATP consumption
Passive Cell Membrane Transport
129
Cell Membrane Transport :
Usually no carries
Passive Cell Membrane Transport
130
Cell Membrane Transport :
Specific/Non specific
Passive Cell Membrane Transport
131
Cell Membrane Transport :
No inhibition
Passive Cell Membrane Transport
132
Cell Membrane Transport :
Equilibrium
Passive Cell Membrane Transport
133
Cell Membrane Transport :
Bidirectional
Passive Cell Membrane Transport
134
Cell Membrane Transport :
Water and Hydrophilic ---> Protein Channels (gated/non gated) no ATP used
Passive Cell Membrane Transport
135
Cell Membrane Transport :
Lipophilic --> Lipid bilayer
Passive Cell Membrane Transport
136
Cell Membrane Transport :
Living and non-living cells
Passive Cell Membrane Transport
137
Cell Membrane Transport :
Transcellular and Paracellular
Passive Cell Membrane Transport
138
In diffusion, a substance moves down its
concentration gradient from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration
Passive Transport
139
transport proteins
move charged molecules (e.g., potassium ions)
and larger molecules (e.g., glucose) into and
out of the cell.
facilitated diffusion
140
glucose has been broken down completely
to CO2 and H2O and produces 10 coenzyme molecules
(8 NADH & 2 FADH2)
Kreb’s cycle
141
an electrochemical gradient of hydrogen ions
(protons) across the thylakoid membranes that undergoes
redox reactions in a series.
ETC
142
glycolysis and reduction of pyruvate
producing ethanol or lactic acid and NAD+
Fermentation
143
absence of O2 result in
2ATP/mol of glucose
Anaerobic Respiration
144
presence of O2 results in net
36ATP/mol of glucose
Aerobic Respiration
145
refers to the complex network of biochemical processes
that occur within living organisms
Metabolism
146
Types of Metabolism
Catabolic and Anabolic metabolism
147
Process of breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones. In
this process, energy is released, which can be stored and used later
Catabolic Metabolism
148
is responsible for the breakdown of food into
smaller molecules, such as glucose, which can then be used to
produce energy in the form of ATP
Catabolic Metabolism
149
Process of building complex molecules from simpler ones. In this
process, energy is required to create bonds between molecules, and
these bonds are stored as potential energy
Anabolic Metabolism
150
is
responsible for the synthesis of new molecules such as proteins,
nucleic acids, and carbohydrates. The process of photosynthesis,
which involves the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into
glucose and oxygen
Anabolic Metabolism
151
reactions require energy input to proceed. In other
words, the potential energy of the products is higher than that of the
reactants, are non-spontaneous and require
an input of energy to occur
ex: the synthesis of glucose during photosynthesis, as energy is
required to create bonds between molecules
Endergonic Metabolism
152
reactions release energy as a product. In other words, the
potential energy of the reactants is higher than that of the products, are spontaneous and do not require energy
input to proceed. The breakdown of glucose through cellular
respiration
Exergonic Metabolism
153
Process by which cells produce energy in the form of ATP molecules
from the breakdown of glucose and other organic molecules
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
154
The
process of cellular respiration can be divided into three main stages
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Cycle
3. Oxidative Phosphorylation
155
is the first stage of cellular respiration and
takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell, glucose is converted into two molecules of pyruvate,
producing a net gain of two ATP molecules
Glycolysis
156
also known as the citric acid cycle or
the tricarboxylic acid cycle, takes place in the mitochondria
of the cell
Krebs cycle
157
separation of the cellular cytoplasm due to
constriction of microfilaments about the center of the cell
Cytokinesis
158
is the first phase of the cell cycle and is
characterized by cell growth and preparation for DNA
replication in the S phase
G1 phase
159
nuclear division with genetic change
Mitosis
160
condensation of chromatin into
chromosomes; Centrioles move to opposite
ends of cell; Nucleolus and nucleus disappear;
Spindle apparatus forms
Prophase
161
chromosome align at equator
Metaphase
162
sister chromatids split and move
toward opposite ends of cell
Anaphase
163
nuclear membrane reforms the
nucleolus; Result: 2 identical daughter cells
Telophase
164
double nuclear division which produces 4 haploid
gametes
Meiosis
165
homologous chromosomes line up
alongside each other, matching their genes
exactly. May exchange sequences of DNA
(crossing over)
Prophase I
166
homologs move to metaphase
plate, do not separate
Metaphase I
167
homologs separate
Anaphase I
168
Nuclear membrane may or may
not form. If cytokinesis occurs the cells are
haploid with 23 chromosomes
Telophase I
169
produces two daughter cells that are genetically
identical to the parent cell and have the same number of
chromosomes (i.e., diploid)
Mitosis
170
produces four
daughter cells that are genetically unique from the parent cell
and have half the number of chromosomes (i.e., haploid).
Meiosis
171
functional unit chemically composed of DNA
Gene
172
sum total of all the genes present in a n
individual
Genome
173
any member of a given pair of genes
o if the alleles are identical then the condition is
said to be homozygous and the individual is a
homozygote;
o if the alleles are non-identical, then the
condition is said to be heterozygous and the
individual is a heterozygote.
Allele
174
genetic composition of an individual
Genotype
175
external appearance of an individual
Phenotype
176
involves single pair of contrasting
genes
Monohybrid Cross
177
involves 2 pairs of contrasting genes
Dihybrid Cross
178
involves three or more pairs of
contrasting genes
Polyhybrid Cross
179
parents of a cross
Parental Generation (P)
180
offsprings of a cross
Filial Generation (F)
181
first filial generation (children)
F1
182
second filial generation (grandchildren)
F2
183
is the period from conception to birth,
and the influences of nature refer to genetic factors in this
development
Prenatal development
184
the law which states that two members of single
gene pair separate from each o t h e r during
gamete formation
Law of SEGREGATION
185
Na + -K+ pump
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
186
move large molecules and
food particles across the plasma membrane with the
expenditure of ATP; in other words, they utilize active
transport.
Exocytosis and endocytosis
187
fusion of vesicles and molecules with the
plasma membrane; secretes materials to the outside of
the cell.
Exocytosis
188
the cell takes in the molecules via vesicles
that fuse with the plasma membrane
Endocytosis
189
uptake of liquids
Pinocytosis
189
uptake of solids
Phagocytosis
190
Molecules or ions move down their concentration gradient from an
area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, facilitated
by various mechanisms such as simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion,
and osmosis. This movement is driven by the random thermal motion
of particles and does not require energy input.
Passive transport
191
Moves molecules or ions against their concentration gradient, from
an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration, which
requires the input of energy in the form of ATP. This energy allows
transport proteins (such as pumps or transporters) to move
molecules or ions against their concentration gradient, which is
energetically unfavorable
Active transport
192
Cells acquire energy to build, store, break down, and rid
themselves of substances
METABOLISM
193
large molecules are
assembled and energy is stored
Biosynthetic pathway
194
large molecules are
broken down into simple ones and energy is
released
Degradative pathway
195
Metabolic Pathways
1. Energy-Acquiring
2. Energy-Releasing
196
Energy Acquiring: Anaerobic catabolism of glucose (6C) to
pyruvic acid (3C x 2) which occurs in
cytoplasm
Glycolysis
197
usually the longest stage. Cell splits and grows.
G1
198
energy used for replicating DNA
S
199
cell prepares to divide
G2
200
Meiosis or Mitosis
M
201
separation of the cellular cytoplasm due to
constriction of microfilaments about the center of the cell
Cytokinesis
202
the law which states that genes on different
chromosomes independently behave in the
production of gametes.
o Therefore, leading to the randomization of the
genotypes/ phenotypes of the offspring
Law of INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
203
the trait that is usually manifested and is
able to mask the effects of the recessive trait
o Example: A girl has heterozygous straight hair
(Cc). The big letter C refers to the dominant trait
(straight) while, the small letter (curly) refer sto
the recessive trait.
Dominant trait
204
the trait that is masked by the dominant
trait
Recessive trait
205
refers to a trait that is pure-bred or has the
same type of trait which could be both dominant or both
recessive
o Example: C-straight, c- curly. CC- homozygous
straight, cc- homozygous curly
Homozygous
206
refers to a combination of a dominant and
a recessive trait.
o Example: C- straight, c-curly. Cc- heterozygous
straight (via complete dominance)
Heterozygous
207
o Dominance is complete
o Trait is governed by a single allele only
o Genes are found on different chromosomes that
is why their behavior is independent of each
other
o Genes are autosomal this, every parent has the
same number of alleles No interaction between
various genes
o Trait has no selective value thus, every
phenotype has equal chance of survival
o Genetic material found in the chromosome
Assumptions of Mendelian Law
208
o A type of inheritance that neither traits from the
parents is dominant to the other
o Traits are 'blended'
o Example: Crossing a red flower with a white
flower yielding pink flowers as offspring is a
manifestation of incomplete dominance
Incomplete dominance
209
o A type of inheritance that both traits from the
parents are manifested.
o Example: ABO blood typing system specifically
bloodtype AB
Codominance
210
o A type of inheritance where-in multiple alleles
affect a certain trait
o Example: ABO blood typing systemis also
inherited via multiple alleles. Various
combinationsof blood allele A , B and O gives
rise to different blood types
Multiple Alleles
211
o multiple numbers of genes affect a certain trait
o height, skin color, eye color and intelligence
Polygenes
212
o this is a type of inheritance where-in genes
responsible for the phenotypeof the organism is
located in the 22 pairs of non-sex determining
chromosomes.
o There are two types of autosomal inheritance
(1) autosomal dominant and (2) autosomal
recessive
Autosomal Inheritance
213
o Dominant conditions are expressed in
organisms with just one copy of the mutant
allele
o Affected males and females have equal
probabilities of transmitting the trait to their
offspring
o Affected individual has only one copy of the
normal gene and one copy of the faulty gene
thus, offspring of each affected individual has
50% chance of getting the mutant allele
o Huntington's disease, Achondroplasia and
Polycystic Kidney Disease
Autosomal dominant
214
are not manifested
when there is a normal copy of the gene
recessive traits are manifested in
males for having only one copy of the Xchromosome because there is no extra xchromosome to compensate for the mutant
gene
X-linked recessive inheritance
215
o the mutant Manifested with only one copy of
allele No father to son transmission
o There is father to daughter transmission
o All daughters of an affected father will have the
disease because the father has only one X
chromosome to transmit
o woman affected has 50% chance having a child
that is affected by the disease
o Retinitis pigmentosa, Chondrodysplasia
punctata, hypophosphatemic rickets
X-linked dominant inheritance
216
is a type of inheritance pattern that involves
genes located on the sex chromosomes, which are the X and Y
chromosomes. In humans, females have two X chromosomes, while
males have one X and one Y chromosome. Since males only have
one copy of the X chromosome, they are more likely to be affected
by X-linked disorders than females.
Sex-linked inheritance
217
An X-linked disorder, which means it is carried on the X
chromosome. Females have two X chromosomes, so they can be
either carriers or affected by
Hemophilia
218
It is characterized by the presence of an extra copy of
chromosome 21, which causes developmental and intellectual
delays. In most cases, trisomy 21 occurs due to a random error
during the formation of the egg or sperm, but it can also be inherited.
Trisomy 21 or Down Syndrome
219
are the leading cause of death
worldwide. These include conditions such as coronary artery
disease, heart failure, and stroke. Risk factors for these
diseases include high blood pressure, high cholesterol,
smoking, diabetes, obesity, and a sedentary lifestyle
Cardiovascular diseases
220
affect the lungs and breathing
passages. Common examples include asthma, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and pneumonia.
Environmental factors such as air pollution, second-hand
smoke, and allergens can trigger or worsen these diseases
Respiratory diseases
221
o 3 FA’s and 1 glycerol
o Transport, storage and insulation
o 2 forms of Phospholipids in an aqueous
environment: Micelle and Phospholipid bilayer
lipids
222
o Watson-Crick Model: Nucleotides (monomer) are
connected to each other by phosphodiester bonds
o Nucleotide is made up of three components:
nitrogenous base, sugar (ribose, deoxyribose) and
phosphate group
o The nitrogenous bases are adenine, guanine,
cytosine, thymine, uracil.
o Base Pairs are connected by Hydrogen Bonds
Nucleic Acids
223
when fatty acid molecules are broken
down in mitochondria to generate actyl-coA.
Beta-oxidation
224
chemical reaction between two
molecules (amino acid containing amine (NH2) and a
keto acid (=O). Amino acid becomes keto acid and keto
acid becomes amino acid.
Transamination
225
process that generates
NADPH and pentoses. This is an alternative to
glycolysis. Primary role is anabolic and takes place in
cytosol or in plastids of plants
Pentose phosphate pathway
226
biological response of a system to
changes in predetermined set points of the body functions in
maintaining homeostasis
Feedback mechanisms
227
most common
mechanism; the output reduces the effect of the
original stimulus; i.e. thermoregulation
Negative feedback
228
the output enhances the
effect of the original stimulus; i.e. oxytocin
production during labor
Positive feedback
229
collection of structures, organs, and glands
that work in concert to ingest food, break it into molecules that can
be absorbed by the circulatory system, and eliminate solid waste
from the body.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
230
only carbohydrates are broken down
Oral Cavity
231
secretes salivary amylase which breaks down starch;
chewing or mechanical digestion is also carried out; a bolus or ball
of food is formed
Mouth
232
back of the throat; it has a structure called the
epiglottis that blocks food from going down the windpipe or trachea.
Pharynx
233
food tube that transports bolus down to the
stomach via a smooth muscle contraction called peristalsis
Esophagus
234
only protein is broken down
Stomach
235
a digestive fluid with pH
of about 2 that aids digestion
Gastric Juice
236
a protease called pepsinogen until food is present in the
stomach
Pepsin
237
food and gastric juice that
is processed in the stomach
Acid Chyme
238
all 3 macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins) are broken down:
i. Organ that digests most food and absorbs it into
the blood.
Small Intestine
239
first part of the small intestine
where digestion takes place.
Duodenum
240
main purpose is to
reabsorb water; also creates feces and eliminates them through the
rectum or end of the large intestine
Large Intestine or Colon (no digestion)
241
The Effects of Irregular Eating Habits on the Stomach
Ulcer
One of the main consequences of irregular eating habits is the
formation of ulcers.
Without food to buffer the effect of these acidic juices, they can
start to digest the stomach lining, leading to the formation of
ulcers.
242
are specialized cells found in the heart that
are responsible for pumping blood throughout the body.
These cells are interconnected by regions of intercalated discs that
allow them to function as a synchronized unit
Cardiac muscle cells
243
are specialized structures that connect
adjacent cardiac muscle cells.
o They contain two main structures: desmosomes
and gap junctions.
Intercalated discs
244
are protein complexes that help to anchor
adjacent cells together.
o They are important for maintaining the structural
integrity of the heart and for transmitting the
force of contraction from one cell to the next.
Desmosomes
245
are channels that allow ions and small
molecules to flow between cells.
o They are important for synchronizing the
electrical activity of the cells and ensuring that
they contract in a coordinated manner
Gap junctions
246
initiate the electrical activity in the
heart, these cells are transmitted through the intercalated discs to the
cardiac muscle cells, resulting in coordinated contraction
of the heart.
pacemaker cells
247
are essential for the proper function of cardiac
muscle cells and the efficient pumping of blood throughout the body.
Intercalated discs
248
is the process by which muscles generate
tension and produce force. It involves the activation of muscle fibers,
which are composed of myofibrils. Each myofibril contains
sarcomeres, the basic unit of muscle contraction
Muscle contraction
249
The energy required for muscle contraction comes from
the hydrolysis of? ________
hydrolysis of ATP
250
blood mixes with
internal organs directly. Insects, arthropods, and
mollusks have an open circulatory system.
Open Circulatory System
251
blood is contained
within blood vessels that lead to the organs.
Earthworms, octopi, and vertebrates have a closed
circulatory system
Closed Circulatory System
252
one ventricle, one atrium with gill capillaries
allowing for gas exchange
Fish
253
one ventricle and two atrium; have lung
and skin capillaries for gas exchange. Have double
circulation or oxygen-rich blood going to the organs
and oxygen deficient blood returning to the right
atrium.
Amphibian
254
two ventricles and two atrium, with lung
capillaries for gas exchange. Also makes use of
double circulation
Mammal
255
Pumps blood
Heart
256
Carry blood away from heart under
pressure (DEOXYGENATED)
Arteries
257
Carry blood toward heart (OXYGENATED);
contains valves that prevent blood from flowing
backward; contraction of skeletal muscles provide
force
Veins
258
carries blood with highest concentration
of oxygen
Pulmonary Vein
259
veins that drain the kidney. Connect the kidney
to the inferior vena cava
Renal Vein
260
carries deoxygenated blood from heart
to lungs
Pulmonary artery
261
blood vessel that conducts blood from
gastrointestinal tract and spleen to the liver
Hepatic portal vein
262
Exchange substance with nearby
tissues, generally by diffusion
Capillaries
263
Carry O2
Red blood cells
264
Protect against infections
White blood cells
265
Clots blood
Platelets
266
Carries nutrients, wastes, antibodies, and
hormones; regulates osmotic pressure
Plasma
267
Carry lymph from tissues to heart;
transport digested fat to cardiovascular system
Lymph Vessels
268
Lymph Nodes —Filter lymph to remove
microorganisms and debris
Lymph Nodes
269
Lost fluid and protein is returned to the
cardiovascular system
Lymph
270
consists of the lungs and related
structures; it delivers oxygen to, and removes carbon dioxide from,
the circulatory system in humans via the functional units known as
the alveoli.
Respiratory system
271
defined as the uptake of oxygen (O2 ) and loss
of carbon dioxide (CO2 )
Gas exchange
272
specialized for gas exchange of
terrestrial organisms. For an insect such as a grasshopper, the
tracheae opens to the outside
Tracheal system and lungs
273
Amphibians (frogs) are the only vertebrates that use
skin along with lungs to promote gas exchange.
Lungs
274
Control of Breathing:
the lower part of the brainstem,
maintains homeostasis by monitoring CO2 levels.
ii. When CO2 levels are high, the CO2 reacts with
water in the blood, dropping the pH of the blood it senses a pH drop and excess
CO2 is exchanged for O2 .
Medulla oblongata
275
Iron—containing protein of mammalian red blood
cells
Hemoglobin
276
maintains water, salt, and pH balance, and
removes nitrogenous wastes (urea in humans) from the body by
filtering the circulating blood
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
277
carries unfiltered blood from the
circulatory system to the kidneys for filtration
Renal Artery
278
carries filtered blood from the kidneys back
to circulatory system.
Renal Vein
279
remove urea and toxins
from the blood; produce urine; maintain salt, pH, and
water balance of blood.
Kidneys (contain nephrons)
280
synthesizes urea from
ammonia; detoxifies other wastes.
Liver (role in excretion)
281
carry urine from kidneys to bladder
Ureters
282
stores and eliminates urine from the body
Bladder
283
carries urine from the bladder to exterior of the
body
Urethra
284
in the kidneys filter blood, removing wastes and
returning vital substances to the circulatory system. This is an
example of coordinated cooperation
Nephrons
285
receives input from internal and external
sensors and relays that information to the brain, where integration
occurs; the brain sends out nervous signals to different parts of the
body that carry out actions in response
NERVOUS SYSTEM
286
large portion of neuron that contains the
nucleus and organelles
Cell body
287
communicate the nervous signals from
tips of neuron to the cell body
Dendrites
288
transmit action potentials down their lengths
Axon
289
insulate axons for faster action
potential in the central nervous system.
Myelin Sheath
290
insulate axons for faster action
potential in the peripheral nervous system.
Schwann Cells
291
gaps between the Schwann
cells that allow for faster action potentials, hence
faster communication.
Nodes of Ranvier
292
the space between the end of the axon
and the target; examples of targets include muscles
or other neurons
Synapse
293
convert action potential into
chemical signal when an action potential triggers the
release of its vesicles filled with neurotransmitters
into the synaptic cleft
Axon terminals
294
Provides location for transmission
of nerve signal between two neurons
Synaptic Cleft
295
consists of the brain and
spinal cord.
Central nervous system
296
consists of all the neurons
outside the brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system
297
brings information from
sense to organs to the central nervous system via afferent
(incoming) neurons
Sensory division
298
brings information
from the brain to the body by efferent (outgoing) neurons,
and is divided into voluntary and involuntary systems
Motor division
299
hormone and neurotransmitter that
functions to regulate heart rate, breathing, and fight or flight
response of sympathetic nervous system
Adrenaline/Epinephrine
300
water soluble essential nutrient
Choline
301
neurotransmitter released from
the sympathetic neurons to affect the heart
Noradrenaline/Norepinephrine
302
Neurotransmitter in autonomic nervous system
that acts on peripheral nervous system and central nervous system.
Only neurotransmitter used in the motor
Acetylcholine
303
detect
stimuli and turn it into action potentials that travel to the proper
region of the brain where the received sensation is processed to
produce a perception
sensory receptors
304
specific and nonspecific defenses used by the
body to fight pathogens
IMMUNE SYSTEM
305
organisms that cause infectious disease, including
viruses, bacteria, protists, fungi, and small vertebrates
Pathogens
306
those targeting specific pathogens by
recognizing a specific foreign substance by its antigens and then
marshaling the humoral and/or cell-mediated defenses
Specific defenses
307
involves B cells, whic
attack pathogens with antibodies
Humoral immune response
308
involves T cells, which
attack pathogens, cells infected with pathogens, and
cancer cells by lysing them
Cell-mediated response
309
is any substance that can provoke an immune response
in the body.
* This immune response can involve the activation of
specialized white blood cells called B cells, which can
produce specific proteins called antibodies.
Antigen
310
can neutralize antigens in a number of ways,
including blocking their ability to bind to other cells,
marking them for destruction by other immune cells, or
directly attacking and destroying them.
Antibodies
311
is primarily transmitted
through specific bodily fluids that contain the virus. Here are the
common modes of transmission
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
312
the stage of development that occurs after
the embryonic stage, during which the organs and tissues
that were formed during the embryonic stage continue to
mature and develop
Fetal stage
313
the stage of development during
which the neural tube, which gives rise to the brain and
spinal cord, is formed
Neurulation stage
314
the stage of development during
which the embryo undergoes a series of complex
morphogenetic movements that result in the formation of
distinct germ layers, which give rise to specific tissues and
organs
Gastrulation stage
315
ithe stage immediately following
fertilization, during which the developing embryo is
composed of totipotent cells that have the ability to give
rise to all cell types in the body. During the gastrulation
stage, the removal of individual cells can cause significant
developmental abnormalities and damage to the embryo,
as the cells have already started to differentiate into
specific germ layers that give rise to specific tissues and
organs
Pre-gastrulation stage
316
is a type of B vitamin that is essential for the proper growth and development of the fetus during pregnancy
Folic acid
317
The study of the interactions among living things and their
surroundings
ECOLOGIC RELATIONSHIP
318
Capture energy from
sunlight, CO2 and H2O – Most producers are
photosynthetic
Photosynthetic organisms
319
Capture energy from
chemical compounds in the surroundings
Chemosynthetic organisms
320
Eat only plants and fungi
Herbivores
321
Eat both plants/fungi and animals
Omnivores
322
Eat only animals
Carnivores
323
Eat dead organic matter
Detrivores
324
Break down organic matter into simpler
compounds
Decomposers
325
Manner in which energy moves
through an ecosystem – Each ecosystem has its own
unique trophic structure
Trophic Structures
326
Autotrophs (Photosynthesizers,
Chemosynthetic organisms)
Producers
327
Herbivores and omnivores that eat
producers
Primary consumers
328
Carnivores and omnivores that
eat herbivores
Secondary consumers
329
Carnivore eats another carnivore
Tertiary consumers
330
Consume decaying
producers and consumers
Decomposers and Detrivores
331
-Energy is lost in each step up a food chain
-Only 10 percent of the energy from one level on the food chain is
available to the next level
Food Chain
332
-Many consumers and decomposers have more than one food
source
-Movement of energy occurs in complex webs rather than in
simple chains
Food Webs
333
are organisms that can produce their own
food through the process of photosynthesis, using energy
from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into
organic compounds. They are the foundation of the food
chain and provide the energy and nutrients needed for all
other organisms in the ecosystem. Examples of
producers include plants, algae, and some types of
bacteria
Producers
334
are organisms that break down dead
organic matter, such as dead plants and animals, and
recycle the nutrients back into the ecosystem. They play
an important role in the nutrient cycle and help to
maintain the balance of the ecosystem. Examples of
decomposers include bacteria, fungi, and some types of
insects
Decomposers
335
are organisms that consume
producers, feeding on plants or algae. They are also
known as herbivores. Examples of primary consumers
include rabbits, deer, cows, and some types of insects
Primary consumers
336
are organisms that feed on
primary consumers, also known as carnivores. They
obtain their energy and nutrients by consuming
herbivores or other carnivores. Examples of secondary
consumers include foxes, wolves, hawks, and some
types of fish.
Secondary consumers
