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Biology Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

UWhat is Biology?

A

The study of living organisms and their interactions with each other and the environment

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2
Q

Describe good selectivity and give an example

A

The ability for an antibiotic to target and kill the bacteria without side effects. (Heart guard in dogs)

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3
Q

Describe bad selectivity and give an example

A

An antibiotic that targets and kills the bacteria but also affects the host with side effects. (Chemotherapy, lighting your head on fire to get rid of a cold)

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4
Q

4 characteristics of a Prokaryote

A

1: bacteria and archaea
2: does not have a nucleus
3: mostly unicellular
4: all processes occur in cytoplasm

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5
Q

4 characteristics of a Eukaryote

A

1: animals, plants, humans, fungi
2: Does have a nucleus
3: Has membrane bound organelles (compartments inside their cells)
4: can be multi cellular and unicellular (all animals are multicellular)

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6
Q

Describe unicellular organisms

A

Formed of only one cell that carries out all functions, these are all microscopic

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7
Q

Describe multicellular

A

Formed of multiple cells and use many different cells to carry out functions.

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8
Q

What kingdom includes both unicellular and multicellular organisms?

A

Fungi and protista

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9
Q

Describe a Virus

A

A biological machine

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10
Q

Are virus alive? Why not?

A

No, because they do not meet all the requirements within biology to be considered alive

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11
Q

What does a virus need to survive?

A

A host

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12
Q

What are antibiotics?

A

Chemicals that disrupt prokaryote biology without disrupting eukaryote or virus biology

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13
Q

Why is it more difficult to kill a fungi inside a human than a bacteria?

A

Because fungi and humans are both eukaryote organisms while bacteria is a eukaryote organism. This means that the antibiotic cannot tell the different between the human and fungi cells as easily as human and bacteria.

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14
Q

What causes of death have gone up since the discovery of antibiotics? What have gone down?

A

Up: cancer, heart disease, suicide.
Down: deadly or infectious diseases, birth related deaths, infection related deaths

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15
Q

Why are we not discovering more antibiotics?

A

Because pharmaceutical companies are choosing to fund research for drugs that people will need to use for the rest of their life for money. Drugs that have a wider market, that need to be used for a longer term, and because pricing can be manipulated.

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16
Q

What is the first new antibiotic discovered in 30 years?

A

Teixobactin

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17
Q

What is an infectious disease?

A

A disease caused by pathogens

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18
Q

What is antibiotic resistance?

A

When the bacteria becomes resistant or immune to the chemicals of the antibiotic, making it useless for that person.

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19
Q

What is an antibiotic class?

A

A set of molecules that target the same biological processes. So different antibiotics that have the same molecular structure. When someone becomes resistant to amoxicillin they typically resits penicllin as well because they are part of the same class.

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20
Q

What are the 7 properties of life

A

Reproduction, growth/developement, structure, energy processing, environmental response, evolutionary adaption, regulation

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21
Q

Define the the characteristic of life: reproduction

A

To be considered living an organism must be able to reproduce it’s own kind

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22
Q

Describe the characteristic of life: growth/developement

A

To be considered living an organism must have inherited information in their DNA. This is why we look like our relatives.

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23
Q

Describe the characteristic of life: structure

A

To be considered living, an organism must have structure. We have organ systems/atoms/cell structurs.

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24
Q

Describe the characteristic of life: energy processing

A

To be considered living, an organism must be able to eat food to access our chemical stores to power our activity.

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25
Q

Describe the characteristic of life: environmental response

A

To be considered living, an organism must have a reaction to its environmental stimuli. This is why we laugh when tickled. It can be voluntary or involuntary, slow or fast.

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26
Q

Describe the characteristic of life: evolutionary adaption

A

To be considered living an organism must follow along with evolutionary adaption. These evolve over many generations. Such as animals being able to blend in to their surroundings.

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27
Q

Describe the characteristic of life: Regulation

A

To be considered living, an organism must regulate its internal environement to remain suitable for survival. This is things like blood flow and nutrient transport or homeostasis.

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28
Q

What is the scientific method?

A

A highly structured research method or process to discover knowledge. It is also used to plan, execute, and interpret experiments.

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29
Q

List the steps of the scientific method and describe each

A

1:observation (often a problem to solve)
2: form a hypothesis (which is a proposed explanation for an event that is testable)
3: Form a prediction (an if then statement predicting the experimental outcome that WOULD support the hypothesis)
4: design an experiment (this is tied in with forming a prediction)
5: execute experiment
6: analyze results (determine if hypothesis is supported or not)
7: do it all over again.

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30
Q

Is a hypothesis ever proven true?

A

No, it is either supported or unsupported. There is no true or false in science. It is a continual process and always changing.

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31
Q

Describe hypothesis driven science

A

Knowledge built by testing a specific hypothesis in experiments

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32
Q

Describe descriptive science

A

Knowledge built upon observations such as tracking the migration of animals.

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33
Q

What is a scientific law?

A

Usually a mathematical formula that can predict an outcome to a phenomena.

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34
Q

Do scientific laws have limits?

A

Yes, for instance, we can’t use the same math to track the path of a baseball as we can to track the course of celestial bodies.

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35
Q

What is a scientific theory?

A

Another word for a hypothesis. An idea that explains something. Is supported by a lot of experimental outcome.

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36
Q

How can we change laws?

A

We can be more precise and make adjustments to apply better to certain circumstances. As we learn more things, science changes.

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37
Q

How can we change theories?

A

Theories change radically and often as we learn more. We can do this by executing more experiments based around the theory.

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38
Q

What is an independent variable?

A

A condition in an experiment that you can manipulate.

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39
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

The output or result in an experiment that you measure. This might be affected by the independent variable.

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40
Q

What is a controlled variable?

A

Any other condition within an experiment that could affect the dependent variable. This is held constant during an experiment.

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41
Q

What part of the characteristics of living organisms is homeostasis a part of?

A

regulation

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42
Q

Why is homeostasis special?

A

Because it is regulation around a set point. You can not deviate from it too far. Our internal temperature for humans is an example.

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43
Q

What is a sample?

A

Something subjected to the conditions of an experiment

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44
Q

What is an experimental sample?

A

subjected to change within an experiment

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45
Q

What is a control sample?

A

Samples for which the independent variable is eliminated or standarized.

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46
Q

What would be an example of a control sample in a study about plants needing light to grow?

A

The control sample would be standardizing the temperature that the plants are all at.

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47
Q

What are conclusions based on belief?

A

Conclusions that are purely someone’s beliefs. They do not have to backed by science and they have no rules. They can contradict science proven facts.

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48
Q

What are conclusions based on science?

A

Conclusions about something that are supported by emperical evidence. They have to be reconciled when new evidence is brought up or knew knowledge is gained.

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49
Q

What is an ancestral trait?

A

Characteristics shared between organisms and all common ancestors.

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50
Q

What is a derived trait?

A

Characteristics unique to one individual group of organisms. (Like all birds have feathers, but penguins feathers are oily and robbins feathers are fluffy)

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51
Q

What is a derived trait of mammals?

A

Hair

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52
Q

What are some ancestral traits of all life?

A

1: use DNA to store heritable information
2: proteins are cells machinery
3: transcription of DNA into RNA
4: transcription of RNA into proteins and ribosomes.
5: cells are the smallest unit of life
6: same 20 amino acids are used

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53
Q

Why are virsus not considered living?

A

They are biological particles that can not grow and develop. They are assembled as mature units.

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54
Q

Where is one place that we can store energy?

A

Adapos or fat tissue.

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55
Q

How does the regulation in our bodies conserve energy?

A

By only performing functions that are needed here and now. So when we’re not running, our heart rate doesnt need to be as high.

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56
Q

Why is water so important?

A

Because all life is built around water. Most of our bodies are made of water. water occupies the space around and in between cells.

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57
Q

Human skin is what percentage water?

A

64

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58
Q

Human brains are what percentage water?

A

73

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59
Q

What is a mollecule?

A

A molecule is atoms combining together

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60
Q

What are polar molecules?

A

Molecules with full or partial charges where electrons are shared unequally.

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61
Q

What are non polar molecules?

A

Molecules without charges and equally shared electrons

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62
Q

Why is the angle of bonds important to molecules structure?

A

Because molecules have 3d shapes and the angles are fixed properties which determine the 3d shape.

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63
Q

What is electronegetivity?

A

The tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons to a nucleus

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64
Q

Why do polar like to interact with polar?

A

Because they act like magnets, they have full or partial charges and are attracted to each other more than non polar molecules.

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65
Q

What can we determine by electronegativity?

A

Predict what atoms will form a chemical bond and what kind of chemical bond by the difference in electronegativity.

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66
Q

What are the three types of chemical bonds?

A

Ionic, polar covalent, non polar covalent.

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67
Q

What is an ionic bond?

A

A large difference in electronegativity (over 2)

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68
Q

What is a polar covalent bond?

A

A medium difference in electronegativity (0.4-2)

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69
Q

What is a non polar covalent bond?

A

A low difference in electronegativity (0-0.4)

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70
Q

Why are hydrogen bonds important to living things?

A

They hold our DNA together.

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71
Q

What is surface tension?

A

When the hydrogen bonds are so strong (the force of them) that some insects with special shaped feet can walk across the water

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72
Q

What is cohesion?

A

When water molecules bond with each other (water beading)

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73
Q

What is adhesion?

A

Water molecules bond to surfaces (think miniscus forming on test tubes)

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74
Q

What is capillary action?

A

Adhesion and cohesion forces causing water to “climb” across a surface.

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75
Q

Why does blood get sucked up into the capillary tube when blood is drawn?

A

Because capillary tubes are so narrow that the hydrogen bonds can overcome the force of gravity. The water molecules are polar so they bond with other polar water mollecules and the tube is also polar so they attach to the tube as well.

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76
Q

What is Van Der waals forces?

A

Individually weak Electrostatic interactions among uncharged (non polar) particles.

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77
Q

What is ph?

A

The concentration of free hydrogen ions in an aquius solution

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78
Q

What is the difference in measurements between one Ph level to the next

A

X10

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79
Q

What are molecules?

A

atoms bonded together

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80
Q

Why is the 3d shape of a molecule important?

A

Shape determines the function of the molecule.

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81
Q

Why are antibiotics special molecules?

A

Because the shape of the antibiotic molecule allows it to function with other biological molecules. it attaches to a molecule who fits it’s shape and disrupts the function which kills the bacteria.

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82
Q

What do antibiotics mostly affect?

A

Proteins

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83
Q

Why is it imporatant that antibiotics fit into specific molecules?

A

So it doesn’t affect other biological functions that don’t have bacteria that need to be killed.

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84
Q

What are macromolecules?

A

Large molecules made from repeating set of small molecules. Some of these can be seen with the help of a microscope

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85
Q

What is a polymer?

A

A large molecule constructed from a repeating set of monomers.

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86
Q

What is a monomer?

A

A small molecule used in construction of polymers.

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87
Q

Whats the numerical difference in atoms insmall molecules and macromolecules?

A

Small molecules have approx 500-1000 atoms while macro molecules are well into the thousands.

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88
Q

What are the major classes of macromolecules?

A

Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids.

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89
Q

What monomers are proteins made of?

A

Amino acids.

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90
Q

What monomers are carbohydrates made from?

A

Mono saccharides

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91
Q

What monomers are lipids made from?

A

Lipids aren’t made from monomers.

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92
Q

What monomers are nucleic acids made from?

A

Nuclea tides

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93
Q

How many amino acids are there?

A

20 common ones.

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94
Q

Why is the sequence of amino acids important?

A

The way they are put together determines what kind of protein they become

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95
Q

Are lipids polar or non polar?

A

Non polar

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96
Q

Is water polar or non polar?

A

Polar

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97
Q

What is hydrolosis?

A

The process of proteins clipping off the end of the monomer on a macromolecule

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98
Q

What is dehydration synthesis?

A

The process of putting the monomer back onto the end of a macromolecule

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99
Q

Why are lipids not polymers?

A

They do not have a monomer.

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100
Q

What 2 lipids are the only two that follow dehydration synthesis and hydrolosis?

A

Fats and phospholipids

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101
Q

What is the most abundent element in macromolecules?

A

Carbon

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102
Q

Carbon is what type of trait?__

A

An ancestral trait

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103
Q

Do all living organisms have the four categories of macromolecules?

A

Yes

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104
Q

What is an isomer?

A

A molecule that has the same chemical formula but different structures.

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105
Q

Give two examples of isomers

A

Leucine and isoleucine: they both have the same formula but the atoms are arranged differently

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106
Q

What an innantomers?

A

Mere images.

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107
Q

What are proteins?

A

A long chain of amino acids

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108
Q

What are three different types of proteins?

A

Enzymes, transporters, and structural proteins.

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109
Q

Describe enzyme proteins

A

It is a protein that will make or break other molecules

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110
Q

Describe a transporter protein

A

They carry vesicles along the cytoskeleton

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111
Q

What are structural proteins?

A
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112
Q

What about molecule structure of proteins determines what protein they end up as?

A

The long chains of macromolecules folds into complex 3d shapes. They fold into themselves life origami.

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113
Q

Are transporter proteins found in eukaryotes or prokaryotes?

A

Eukaryotes

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114
Q

What are the 4 levels of structural complexity for proteins? Describe them

A

Primary: a sequence of amino acids (think the alphabet)
Secondary: fold into local structures (think words)
Tertiary: have distant interactions creating more complex structures (think sentences)
Quaternary: the highest form a protein can have, seperate proteins interacting, (think paragraphs)

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115
Q

What are indespensible amino acids?

A

Amino acids that an organism can no make in itself, it must get it from it’s environment.

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116
Q

Dispensable amino acids?

A

Amino acids that can be made in sufficient quantities.

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117
Q

What happens to food when you eat it in regards to macromolecules?

A

All food is comprised o macromolecules. When eaten, your body breaks down the food macromolecules into monomers then uses those monomers to create other things that the body needs.

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118
Q

What happens when proteins can’t achieve quaternary structure?

A

The proteins will misfold which leads to diseases like sickle cell. This is when a single amino acid in the chain is substituted.

119
Q

What are carbohydrates?

A

Polymers of sugar

120
Q

What ratios do carbohydrates usually have?

A

C:H:O in a 1:2:1 ratio.

121
Q

What determines the function of carbohydrates?

A

The type of sugars and how they link up.

122
Q

Are carbohydrates polar or non polar?

A

Polar

123
Q

What are some uses for carbs?

A

Store energy, energy sources, cell support strucutres, cell indentification

124
Q

What is special about the structure of carbohydrates?

A

They can branch out

125
Q

What are some categories of carbohydrates? Explain them.

A

Starches: complex carbs.
Sugars: also known as simple carbohydrates that include fructose, glucose, and lactose
Fiber: complex carbs.

126
Q

Why is glucose an important carbohydrate?

A

It is required for cellular respiration in eukaryotes. It’s our major input for energy processing.

127
Q

What is starch

A

Glucose storage molecule in plants

128
Q

What is a polysaccharide?

A

A form of carbohydrate formed by long chains of repeating units linked together by glycosidic bonds.

129
Q

What are some examples of polysaccharides? Describe some

A

Starch, glycogen, cellulose (structural poly in plants and other eukaryotes), heparin, peptidoglycan, chitin (structural poly. In fungi and arthropods)

130
Q

What are glycoproteins?

A

Polysacchardies that attach themselves to proteins.

131
Q

Why is the sequence of polysaccharides in glycoproteins on the surface of red blood cells important?

A

It determines what blood type you have

132
Q

What are the two types of nucleic acids?

A

DNA: Deoxyribonucleic
RNA: Ribonucleic

133
Q

Whats one difference between RNA and DNA

A

DNA is double stranded and in a helix strucutre. It is found in the nucleus.
RNA: is single stranded and a copy of the DNA sequence for protein synthesis

134
Q

What holds DNA together?

A

Hydrogen bonds

135
Q

What are lipids?

A

A group of large non polar molecules

136
Q

What are some of the jobs of lipids?

A

Store energy, form biological membranes, used as signaling molecules

137
Q

Describe ‘fats’

A

Triglycerides and fatty acids are referred to as ‘fats’ and contain 3 fatty acids and one glycerol. They are part of the lipids group.

138
Q

What are phospholipids?

A

Lipids that form biological membranes that form a barrier between cells and their environment. Contain 2 fatty acids. Have a polar end and a non polar end.

139
Q

Describe a hydrogen bond

A

Weak molecular interactions between polar molecules.

140
Q

Proteins are ____ that are connected _____

A

Amino acids, head to tail

141
Q

Polar covalent bonds create _____ while ionic bonds creat ____ and no polar bonds create _______

A

Partial, full, no charge

142
Q

If the ph is higher on the ph scale, what does that mean?

A

That there are fewer hydrogen atoms in it. Higher is more alkaline, lower is more acidic.

143
Q

Explain the cell theory

A

First foundational theory of biology. Made possible by microscopes.

144
Q

What are the two classification systems of biology?

A

Functional and evolutionary.

145
Q

What is the functional class?

A
146
Q

What is the evolutionary class?

A
147
Q

How do we mainly distinguish between pro and eu cells?

A

By their size

148
Q

Describe the unified cell theory

A

1: cells are the smallest form of life
2: cells comprise all living things
3: new cells come from old cells
4: heretable genetic information is passed from parent to prodigy

149
Q

Is the vast majority of life single or multi cellular?

A

Single celled is far more abundant and diverse. We just can’t see them.

150
Q

Why does the grand prismatic spring have layers of different colors?

A

Becuase as the layers get deeper the environment changes and these different environments have different things like microorganisms, ph, temperature, and oxygen levels.

151
Q

What is multicellularity?

A

Means an organism has more than one cell and these cells depend on each other.

152
Q

What is cell specialization?

A

Also known as cell differentiation, it is common but not required in multicellularity, it means that cells transform into other cells for different purposes. Sperm and egg into a zygote, zygote then undergoes cell division, then you have a lump of cells, those cells differentiate, they turn into brain cells or skin cells, ect…

153
Q

How many domains are under the evolutionart classification? What are they?

A

3, bacteria, archaea, eukaryotes

154
Q

Whats one of the main and important distinguishing features between pro and eu cells?

A

Pro cells do not have membrane bound organelles, eu cells do have. Membrane bound organelles.

155
Q

List the structures inside a prokaryotic cell.

A

Cell wall, capsule, flagella, cytoplasm, 16s ribosome, cytoskeleton, singular circular chromosome, plasma membrane

156
Q

Describe the cell wall of a pro cell.

A

Protects the cell, in between the capsule and the cell membrane.

157
Q

Describe the capsule in a pro cell

A

Carb coating on the outside of the cell

158
Q

Describe the flagella of a pro cell

A

Used to move the cell, spinning motion, sometimes have one sometimes do not, it’s a protein fiber. Located on the end like a tail

159
Q

Describe the cytoplasm of a pro cell

A

Jelly like substance in the cell membrane. All cell funtions occur in the cytoplasm within a pro cell.

160
Q

Describe a pro cell ribosome

A

Make proteins, in the plasma membrane (often seen as little balls on drawings)

161
Q

Describe the cytoskeleton of a pro cell

A

The cytoskeleton is invisible unless dyed, it’s a spindle of fibers that support the membrane.

162
Q

Describe the chromosome of a pro cell

A

Theres only one, it is circular, contains DNA.

163
Q

Describe the plasma membrane on a pro cell

A

Encases the cell and regulates interactions between cell and environment. Located right below the cell wall.

164
Q

Why is there more discovery and research done on eukaryotic cells than prokaryotic cells?

A

Because we tend to focus on ones that help or hurt humans or crop plants. Most pro cells have no association with humans.

165
Q

What is a microbiome?

A

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic microscopic cells living in an particular enironment.

166
Q

What are ecosystem services?

A

Things we get for ‘free’ from organisms performing their normal behavior. An example would be that there is more oxygen in the atmosphere today than 600mya because photosynthetic (cytobacteria) bacteria popped up and began producing oxygen after inhaling CO2

167
Q

Where is most of the bacteria that produces photosynthesis located?

A

In the ocean

168
Q

What do membrane bound organelles do in eu cells?

A

Create specialized compartments in the cell that perform specialized functions. This is why eu cells are more complex than pro cells.

169
Q

How many main groups of eu cells are there?

A

6 groups with specific derived and ancestral traits

170
Q

Why is ‘protist’ not an accurate word

A

Because it does not accurately describe a functional or an evolutionary classification for the organisms it emcompasses.

171
Q

Why is ‘algae’ not an accurate word?

A

Because not all photosynthesizing organisms are algae, which is what the definition of algae used to mean. They do not all belong to the same evolutionary classification.

172
Q

How are humans related to fungi?

A

We share the ancestral trait of having a Singular flagella at some stage of our life.

173
Q

Describe a nucleus

A

1: only found in eu cells
2: stores our chromosomes (we have 46, 23 pairs total) whcih stores ou DNA
3: has a double membrane
4: physically attached to the Endoplasmic Reticulum
5: one of the membrane bound organelles

174
Q

Describe the mitochondria of a eu cell

A

1: Performs cellular respiration
2: found in the cytoplasm
3: one of the membrane bound organelles.

175
Q

Describe a cell wall of a eu cell

A

1: animals do not have a cell wall
2: it’s pourous and keeps out things like viruses and bacteria
3: found on the outside of the cell

176
Q

Describe the plasma membrane of a eu cell

A

1: inputs things in while filtering waste out
2: tags and identifies cells
3: it regulates how the cell interacts with it’s envrionemnt.
4: made of a bilayer of phospholipids imbedded with proteins
5: phospholipids are arranged like this because they have a polar head and nonpolar tail. The tails go inwards to interact with each other while the heads bond together along with the polar water molecules on the outside of the membrane.

177
Q

Describe the cytoskeleton of a eu cell

A

Similar to that of a pro cell, it supports the cell membrane and is made up of protein fibers that are connected to the cell membrane and act as a highway for vesicles to transport along.
Can quickly remodel

178
Q

Describe flagella of a eu cell

A

1: we can either have some or not.
2: long fiber of proteins
3: helps the cell move
4: located on the outside of the cell, resembling tail/s q

179
Q

Describe the cilia of a eu cell

A

1: can have it or not
2: we have some on our respiratory track cells
3: small fibers on the outside of the cell
4: help a cell move

180
Q

Describe the cytoplasm of a eu cell

A

1: jelly like substance
2: inside the cell and around all the cell parts
3: all chemical reactions take place here

181
Q

Describe a vacoule in a eu cell

A

1: a bubble of membrane that gets pinched from the end of the organelles and get’s transported through the vesicles.
2: located in the central area of the cell
3: part of the membrane bound organelles

182
Q

Describe vesicles of a eu cell

A

1: helps transport materials
2: recycle waste materials
3: absorb and destroy toxic substances to prevent damage of cells
4: comes from the ER and travles to the cytoskeleton

183
Q

Describe the Endoplasmic reticulum of an eu cell

A

1: makes lipids, carbs, proteins.
2: contains ribosomes
3: rough has a lot of ribosomes, smooth has few
4: attached to the nucleus
5: part of the membrane bound organelles

184
Q

What kind of vacoule do plants have?

A

A large central vacoule that holds water.

185
Q

What can we tell from the compostion of the cell wall?

A

What type of organims it is.

186
Q

How do plants get virus’s if they can’t get through the cell wall?

A

Insects that have virus on their mouths bite into the plant and spread it

187
Q

Describe the golgi apparatus of a eu cell

A

1: part of the membrane bound organelles
2:a factory in which proteins from the ER are sorted for destination
3: makes vesicles for transport

188
Q

How does the plasma membrane interact with it’s environment?

A

1: waste/nutrient exchange
2: gas/water exchange
3: communication/preception

189
Q

Describe ribosomes in a eu cell

A

1: protein that makes other proteins from amino acid building blocks
2: only enzyme that has RNA in it
3: attached to the ER and free in cytoplasm
4: sends proteins to the golgi apparatus
5: found bound to nucleu envelopes
6: different enough from pro ribosomes so that we can make antibiotics that target bacterial ribosomes (selectivity)

190
Q

What is an enzyme?

A

A protein that makes or breaks other molecules

191
Q

What are some key differences between a animal and plant cell?

A

Animals have: lysosomes and cilir and centrioles

Plants have: one large central vacoule, chloroplasts, cell wall, peroxisomes

They both have a: nucleus, cell membrane, and membrane bound organelles.

192
Q

How much smaller are bacteria roughly than animal cells

A

10x-100x smaller

193
Q

What happens to a plasma membrane if the temp is too high or too low?

A

It will fly apart if it gets too hot and freeze if it gets too cold

194
Q

How does the plasma membrane interact with it’s environment?

A

1: nutrient exchange into cell
2: waste exchange out of cell
3: water exchange into cell
4: communication, it ends and recives signals as to what other molecules are supposed to be there and which ones are not.

195
Q

What are transport proteins?

A

Help substances pass in and out of the phospholipid bilayer of a membrane.

196
Q

Why can’t some molecules cross a phospholipid bilayer ontheir own?

A

Because of their chemical makeup, only very small, non polar molecules may pass on there own and they are rare. Anything polar and large needs help.

197
Q

How does the cell membrane help regulate the cell?

A

It helps determine what it wants in and out of the cell at different times.

198
Q

What is a plasma membrane made out of?

A

Lipids, proteins, and carbs.

199
Q

What is bulk transport?

A

When large volumes of substances is captured and moved through the membrane.

200
Q

What is endocytosis?

A

A form of bulk transport formed on the outside of the cell

201
Q

What is exocytosis?

A

A form of bulk transport when a bubble is formed around substances on the inside of the cell.

202
Q

What is diffusion?

A

Spontaneous movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration.

203
Q

What law is diffusion supported by?

A

2nd law of thermodynamics.

204
Q

What is one of the cons of diffusion and how do our bodies work around it?

A

It can be too slow for large interior body cells to sruvive. Most organims have organ systems that speed up the rate of diffusion, we have our circulatory system.

205
Q

How is our circulatory system tied into diffusin?

A

Blood moves faster than just a molecule by diffusion. It gets things like oxygen to tissuefast enough

206
Q

What are a few things that the rate of diffusion can be affected by?

A

Temperature, surface area, surface thickness

207
Q

What kind of cells can rely on just diffusion?

A

Small and thin cells.

208
Q

What is a concentration gradient?

A

The build up of moelcuels on one side of a membrane.

209
Q

What is osmosis? What way does it move?

A

The movement of water across a membrane. Moves from high concentration to low concentration.

210
Q

What is isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic?

A

It is how cells respond to osmosis.
Iso: the same
Hypo: lower
Hyper: higher

211
Q

Describe passive transport

A

Uses no energy, moves a substance from high to low concentraion.

212
Q

Describe active transport

A

Any transport that uses energy and carries substances from low to high. Consumes ATP to move against the concentration gradient.

213
Q

Describe channel transport
1: how does it flow?
2: does it use energy?
3: is it fast or slow?
4: is it regulated? If so, how?

A

It is a protein pore in a membrane.
1: follows concentration gradient from high to low.
2: no, it is passive
3: very fast
4: yes, chennels open and close depending on what process the cell needs to do at that time. The conditions in the cell determine if they are open or closed.

214
Q

In channel transport, why is it important that the channel can only be used by specific substances? What determines if a protein can fit through the channel?

A

The shape of the molecule/protein is unique so that only that type can pass through a channel.

215
Q

Describe pump transport
1: how does it flow?
2: does it use energy?
3: is it fast or slow?

A

A pump transport is a protein engine.
1: only in one direction
2: yes, it used ATP
3: slower

216
Q

What is another way a pump transport can ‘pay’ if not using atp.

A

Can be a symporter or a antiporter. Which means is will do one unfavorable transport along with a favorable transport at the same time.

217
Q

Whats the difference between a symporter antiporter?

A

Symporter is two transports in the same direction, an antiporter is two substances in opposite directions.

218
Q

What causes cystic fibrosis?

A

Caused by a nonfunctioning chloride ion channel.

219
Q

What is a side effect of cystic fibrosis? Why does this happen?

A

Thick mucus, becuase the water molecules will chase the chloride ions through the membrane and since the chloride ions are stuck on one side of the membrane, the water builds up which causes thicker mucus. water will move from higher outside of cell to lower inside of cell chasing equilibrium

220
Q

In regards to transporters, what can be a cause of genetic diseases?

A

A transport not working correctly or not workign at all.

221
Q

Why is widespread antibiotic resistance our fault?

A

Misuse and overuse of antibiotics in human medicine and in agriculture

222
Q

What is natural selection?

A

An environemntal condition that makes some traits more benficial than other traits. Individuals with more benficial traits will survive longer and produce more offspring.

223
Q

What is genetic diversity

A

Variation in DNA through a population. Like hair color. It increases gradually over tiem due to mutations.

224
Q

What is one type of environemnt that we create in regarfds to antibiotic resistance?

A

Bacteria uses energy to be resistant to antibiotics, this means that they need to either choose to be resistant if in an ‘antibiotic rich’ environemnt, or choose to die. choosing to be resistant will lessen the energy they have to reproduce.

225
Q

Why should you take the full dosage of antibiotics?

A

To eliminate most of the population of the bacteria that needs to be killed, so other bacteria can reproduce more quickly and outgrow it.

226
Q

What is horizontal gene transfer?

A

DNA is transferred between individuals outside of sexual or asexual reproduction.

227
Q

What is vertical gene transfer?

A

Offspring inherit DNA from parents via sexual or asexual reprocution.

228
Q

What rate of antibiotic prescriptions is not needed?

A

1/3

229
Q

Why do doctors keep prescribving antibiotics even if they arent needed?

A

So people feel valued and continue to see healthcare as valuable.

230
Q

What are enzymes?

A

Protiens that make or break other proteins, catalysts for cehmical reactions.

231
Q

How does a chemical reaction occur?

A

A specific enzymer facilitates a bond iwth a specific substrate.

232
Q

What determines what kind of chemical reactions will occur?

A

The shape of the enzyme determines it;s function which determines what substrate it binds with.

233
Q

What do antibiotics target the most?

A

Proteins and enzymes.

234
Q

What is substrate?

A

The starting material for an enzyme to bind with.

235
Q

How can antibiotics tell the difference between things like bacterial ribosomes and eukaryote ribosomes?

A

There are extra parts in bacterial ones that are different enough for the antibotic to tell the difference.

236
Q

What do enzymes make more likely to occur?

A

A chemical reaction.

237
Q

Are enzymes consumed in the process of a chemical reaction like ATP?

A

No

238
Q

Why is an enzymes chemical reaction similar to diffusion?

A

Becuase it speeds up cehmical reaction sin our body that would be too slow to survive without it.

239
Q

Anabolic reactions do what?

A

Create moleules and chemical boneds and require ATP

240
Q

Catabolic reactions do what?

A

Break moleucles and ehcmical bonds and release energy

241
Q

In regard to chemical reactions and catabolic reations what happens when we eat food?

A

We eat, the bonds in the food get broken down by catabolic bonds, our bodies then harvest the energy given off as ATP, spends ATp on other things.

242
Q

What are metabolic pathways? >

A

Enzymes that work in a series to break down more complex moleucles. Very common that the end product will inhibit the first enzyme.

243
Q

What characteristic of life is metabolic pathways considered? Why is this important?

A

Regulation. We don’t want to waste energy by making too much of something.

244
Q

What was the first antibiotic class?

A

Beta lactams

245
Q

What do the beta lactam class of antibiotics do in a cell?

A

Disrupt cell wall biosynthesis

246
Q

What do tetracycline antibiotics do?

A

Inhibit protein production by binding to bacterial ribosomes.

247
Q

What has to occur for an antibiotic to kill a bacteria? There are 4 steps.

A

Get in the cell, stay in the cell, bind with target protein, disrupt a critical biological funtion.

248
Q

Does a bacteria resisting antibiotics come with a cost? Why is this important?

A

Yes, because the cost of using energy to be resistant makes it so that bacteria can be outcompeted by those not needing to be resistant therefor dying anyways.

249
Q

How can antibiotics get in the cell?

A

Through porin channels intended to uptake nutrients or release waste. They are shaped enough like the intended molecule to sneak in.

250
Q

What are the 3 ways a bacteria can stop the antibiotic during the “get in” process.

A

Mutations: dna change = change in amino acid sequence = change of protein shape and function = diff porin that anti can’t get through. This is done at level one.
Extra pump: bacteria create an extra pump designed to transport antibiotics out. This is done at elvel 2.
Extra enzyme: bacteria create an enzyme that breaks down a specific calss of antiboitics. Level one and tow.

251
Q

What are the two ways a bacteria can stop an anti when binding to a target protein?

A

Mutation in DNA = diff amino acid sequence = changes target protein = affects binding efficiency
Different shaped enzyme

252
Q

Howcan a bacteria disrupt an anti at the disrupting function stage?

A

Extra enzyme: with identical function to anti target but has a diff structure that the anti can’t bind to.
Bacteria overproduce target protein
Bacteria alters organelle composition (like the compostion of the phospholipid bilayer)

253
Q

What is asexual reproduction?

A

Cloning of existing cells through mitosis. 1 organism. Genetically identical

254
Q

What is asexual reproduction?

A

Creation of gametes via meiosis and their fusino into a zygote. 2 organisms.

255
Q

What are gametes for a human?

A

Egg and sperm

256
Q

What is the extra cellular matrix?

A

Proteins and carbs excreted by the cells that hold them together into a tissue.

257
Q

What are gap junctions?

A

Regulated pore between animal cells. Large protein tubes. Used for communication. Connect neighboring cells. Important for coordinated movement.

258
Q

What are plasmodesmata junctions?

A

In plants. Large regulated pore connecting cytoplasm and ER of adjacent plant cells.

259
Q

What is a tight junction?

A

Water tight protein seal between animal cells. “Stiching” fixes cells in place. Skin cells.

260
Q

What are desmosome junctions?

A

Protein “weld spots” in animal cells that hold adjacent cells together.

261
Q

What are the different parts of the cell cycle? In order.

A

G1, G1 checkpoint (G0), S phase, G2, G2 checkpoint, M phase

262
Q

How do normal cells behave in the cycle?

A

They have regulated behavior sequentially.

263
Q

How do cancer cells behave in the cell cycle?

A

Unregulated behavior

264
Q

Is the cell cycle lose or strict?

A

Strict

265
Q

How fast do cells go through the cell cycle?

A

Different types of cells take different amounts of time.

266
Q

What are some of the consequences of unregulated cell division?

A

It takes up space that we do not have which can “push” on internal structures and cause damages.

267
Q

Why is cancer a trade off of multicellularity?

A

Because cancer is rare, but the complexity of multicellularity means we have 30 trillion cells that could go wrong.

268
Q

Why is it relevant that plants get cancer?

A

It allows us to better understand and study cancer. Also allows us to discover mechanisms to fight it. Like why elephants and whales don’t get cancer or why alligators don’t get infections.

269
Q

Describe the G1 phase, and where the checkpoint lies.

A

The cell begins to gather nutrients and resources needed to grow. Growth and normal metabolic roles. The checkpoint is at the end of the G1 cycle. It asks
- is there DNA damage?
- are the proper signals present?
- is the cell large enough for DNA replication?

270
Q

Describe the G2 phase of the cell cycle and where the checkpoint is.

A

Growth and prep for mitosis. Check for cell size. Checkpoint is at the end of the phase. Asks
- is the cell large enough?
- are there enough resources?
Is replication complete?
- is there DNA damage?

271
Q

What is the longest phase of the cell cycle?

A

Interphase: everything except M phase. It is doing anything except dividing.

272
Q

What is the G0 resting point? Where is it?

A

Between G1 and S Phase. It is where cells go instead of undergoing apoptosis to wait for environment to improve. This is called the “resting” phase.

273
Q

What types of cells go through the cell cycle quickly? Slowly?

A

Skin cells, liver cells.
Slower: bone cells, cartilage.

274
Q

What is the result of failing a checkpoint in the cell cycle?

A

Failure at G1 is either apoptosis or into G0. Failure at all other phases results in apoptosis.

275
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

Orderly cell destruction

276
Q

What is meiosis?

A

Eukaryotic cell division that produces gametes for sexual reproduction. Produces genetically diverse haploid cells.

277
Q

What is mitosis?

A

Asexual cell division. Produces genetically identical diploid cells.

278
Q

What happens to the parent cell in mitosis?

A

It ceases to exist. The contents divide between daughter cells. The prodegy has the same number of chromosomes.

279
Q

What happens to the parent cell in meiosis?

A

Prodigy has different number of chromosomes. One chromosome is passed to each prodegy. This is how gametes (sperm and egg) are made.

280
Q

What is the purpose of mitosis?

A

Cell differentiation. It allows organisms to grow and develop.

281
Q

What is the purpose of meiosis?

A

Reproduction

282
Q

Why is it important that the parent cell in meisosi starts of with 23 pairs of chromosomes?

A

So the gametes only have one and can fuse with another gamete to complete the pair.

283
Q

Do all humans start with meiosis or mitosis?

A

Meiosis at the egg and sperm level, mitosis after.

284
Q

What is the chromosome theory?

A

A theory explaining how genetic info is inherited from parent to prodigy.

285
Q

What are somatic cells?

A

Cells that do not pass genetic info to sub. Generations of organisms. Most of the cells in the body are this. They only oundergo mitosis.

286
Q

What are GERM cells

A

Cells that do pass on genetic info. Mitosis and meiosis.

287
Q

What are chromosomes?

A

Physical pieces of DNA inherited during reproduction.

288
Q

What phase of the cell cycle are chromosomes replicated? What phase are they inherited?

A

Replicated: S Phase
Inherited: in M phase.

289
Q

How many molecules of DNA does each chromosomehold?

A

Each chromosome holds one molecule of DNA

290
Q

How are the pairs of chromosomes inherited?

A

One of each in a pair came from mom and dad. Chromosomes have the same genes in the same order as everyone else. So everyone has the exact same genes in their chromosome one.

291
Q

What are homologous chromosomes?

A

Pair of structurally identical chromosomes.

292
Q

What chromosomes are not homologous?

A

The x and y chromosomes.

293
Q
A

Biology Lecture (3 decks)

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