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Biology Flashcards

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MCAT flashcards
1
Q

Chromosome

A

stored and packaged DNA

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2
Q

prokaryotes

A

organisms without any membrane-bound organelles

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3
Q

eukaryotes

A

organisms with membrane-bound organelles

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4
Q

Telomeres

A

regions of high G-C content at the end of each chromatid

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5
Q

Karyotypes

A

images that visualize the chromosomes in an organism’s cell

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6
Q

Aneuploidy

A

absence of a chromosome or the presence of an extra one

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7
Q

Structural abnormalities

A

changes in one or more individual chromosomes

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8
Q

Ploidy

A

the number of sets of chromosomes found in a cell.

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9
Q

Sex chromosomes

A

23rd pair of chromosomes, which determines genetic sex

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10
Q

Autosomes

A

1st through 22nd pairs of chromosomes, which do not determine genetic sex

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11
Q

Locus

A

the position, or location, of a gene on a chromosome

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12
Q

Genotype

A

an inherited genetic profile for a trait; determines a phenotype

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13
Q

Phenotype

A

an expressed physical characteristic; determined by a genotype

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14
Q

Law of segregation

A

states that the two allelic copies of genes in a diploid organism are equally segregated into gametes, such that the two gametes that are formed both receive one of the pairs of alleles

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15
Q

Law of independent assortment

A

states that the separation of the alleles of one gene occurs separately and uniquely from the separation of alleles of another gene

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16
Q

Homozygosity:

A

presence of two identical alleles at the same gene

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17
Q

Heterozygosity

A

presence of two different alleles at the same gene

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18
Q

Carrier

A

one who can pass on the recessive allele to their offspring but does not express the recessive phenotype themselves.

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19
Q

Monohybrid cross:

A

analysis of potential combinations of parental alleles with respect to one gene

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20
Q

Dihybrid cross

A

analysis of the allele types for two different genes, instead of one

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21
Q

Test cross

A

crossing the organism of interest with a homozygous recessive individual to determine whether an organism is a dominant homozygote or a heterozygote

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22
Q

X-linked recessive disorders

A

expressed in females that inherit two recessive X-linked alleles and males that inherit one X-linked recessive allele

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23
Q

Codominance

A

occurs when two different alleles’ respective phenotypes are expressed at the same time

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24
Q

Incomplete dominance

A

occurs when the presence of a dominant and a recessive allele creates a phenotype that is different from either dominant or recessive phenotypes

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25
Q

Penetrance

A

the proportion of individuals within a population that actually display the predicted phenotype

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26
Q

Expressivity

A

extent to which the related phenotypic trait is expressed in a single individual

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27
Q

Linked genes

A

genes that are found close together on the same chromosome and are thus more likely to be inherited together

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28
Q

Map units

A

unit used to quantify the distance between two genes on the same chromosome

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29
Q

Natural selection

A

process through which individuals with traits that favor their survival and reproduction outcompete individuals less fitted to the living environment

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30
Q

Genetic drift

A

random, spontaneous allele frequency change that is most prominent when a population faces no selective pressures

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31
Q

Bottleneck effect

A

low genetic variation that results when a relatively small pool of survivors are left to pass on a lower diversity of genes onto offspring after a catastrophe

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32
Q

Founder effect

A

low genetic variation that results when small populations that branch off the main population to form a new colony

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33
Q

Molecular clock theory

A

theoretical method of dating the evolutionary age of a species that states the higher the degree of genetic difference between two species, the longer ago they are assumed to have diverged

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34
Q

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:

A

theoretical state in which no allele frequencies change

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35
Q

cell theory

A

three tenets that describe properties of cells: living organisms are composed of cells, they are the most basic unit of life, and all new cells are products of pre-existing, living cells

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36
Q

Archaea

A

specific single cell prokaryote that lives in extreme environments

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37
Q

Bacteria

A

most common type of prokaryotic cell; classified based on shape (bacilli, spirilli, and cocci)

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38
Q

Anaerobes:

A

bacteria that do not use oxygen for metabolism; for some oxygen is toxic, while for others it is tolerable but not necessary.

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39
Q

Aerobes

A

bacteria that use oxygen for metabolism; some need oxygen while some are able to use oxygen when available.

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40
Q

Parasitic

A

relationship between bacteria and host that benefits the bacteria, but harms the host

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41
Q

Symbiotic

A

relationship between bacteria and host that does no harm, and helps one or both parties

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42
Q

Bacterial cell wall

A

protective structure around the cell membrane of bacterial cells

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43
Q

Capsule

A

a sticky polysaccharide layer around some bacteria that enhances survival of individual bacteria or bacterial colonies

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44
Q

Peptidoglycan

A

polysaccharide that is an important component of bacterial cell walls`

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45
Q

Gram-positive

A

type of bacterial cell wall that has thick layer of peptidoglycan outside the cell wall

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46
Q

Gram-negative

A

type of bacterial cell that has a thin layer of peptidoglycan in between the cell wall and the outer lipopolysaccharide membrane

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47
Q

Bacterial flagella

A

long filaments that spin like a propeller to help the bacteria move

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48
Q

Chemotaxis

A

movement of bacteria in response to chemical signals in the environment

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49
Q

Pili

A

long projections on surface of bacteria that help with attachment and movement, as well as formation of conjugate bridges

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50
Q

Plasmid

A

small circular pieces of DNA in some bacteria in addition to primary DNA; often code for advantageous abilities in bacteria

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51
Q

Binary fission

A

process of reproduction in bacteria; results in two identical daughter cells

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52
Q

Lag phase

A

before cells start growing and reproducing, they have to start the process, and little growth happens

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53
Q

Log phase

A

exponential growth of bacteria due to quick nature of binary fission

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54
Q

Stationary phase

A

peak of exponential growth, population size levels off due to absence of certain resources needed to reproduce further

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55
Q

Death phase

A

after resources are diminished, bacteria begin to die off because they can’t support further growth

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56
Q

Transduction

A

transfer of bacterial DNA through viruses

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57
Q

Transformation

A

absorption of genetic material directly from the environment without a specific carrier

58
Q

Conjugation

A

Similar to sexual reproduction in bacteria; transfer of plasmid through a conjugate bridge between F+ and F- bacteria

59
Q

transposons

A

“jumping genes,” DNA segments that move around in the genome providing genetic variation

60
Q

Nucleus

A

houses genetic information and is involved in partial formation of ribosomes

61
Q

Mitochondria

A

production of energy in the form of ATP through Krebs cycle and electron transport chain

62
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

A

studded with ribosomes and thus the site of protein synthesis, begins post-translational modification of some proteins, sends them to Golgi apparatus

63
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

A

synthesis of lipids, mostly phospholipids; specialized functions in various organs in the body

64
Q

Ribosomes

A

site of protein synthesis; 80S in eukaryotes, 70S in prokaryotes

65
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

further post-translational modifications of proteins; packages proteins into vesicles to distribute to various regions of the cell

66
Q

Lysosomes

A

garbage disposal of the cell; breaks down unwanted molecules into safer molecules easy to dispose of

67
Q

Peroxisomes

A

metabolization of long chain lipids into medium chain lipids to go to mitochondria for further metabolization

68
Q

Microfilaments

A

two strings of actin polymers for cell movement and cleavage of the cell during mitosis

69
Q

Microtubules

A

polymers of tubulin dimers for cell structure and flagella/cilia composition

70
Q

Intermediate filaments

A

polymers of filament monomer for structural support and cellular adhesion; keratin is a prominent example

71
Q

Eukaryotic flagella

A

tail-like structure extending from eukaryotes to help the cell move; made of microtubules in 9+2 structure

72
Q

Cilia

A

multiple small projections on the outside of eukaryotic cells that help move substances along the surface of the cell; made of microtubules in 9+2 structure

73
Q

Capsid

A

a protein coat around all viruses that is used to classify viruses

74
Q

Bacteriophage

A

a virus that is attached specifically to a bacterial cell

75
Q

Lytic cycle:

A

replicating genome of virus constantly to make new virus cells until bacterium bursts and releases new viruses

76
Q

Lysogenic cycle

A

virus genome incorporating into bacterial DNA and beginning the lytic cycle only when environmental triggers are observed

77
Q

Prophage/provirus:

A

bacteria with viral genetic material in the lysogenic cycle

78
Q

Retrovirus

A

a specific virus that uses incorporates genome into host DNA and becomes very difficult to get rid oF

79
Q

Prion

A

a misfolded protein that acts as a template to misfold other proteins; cause of some fatal diseases

80
Q

Viroid

A

single strand RNA capable of silencing gene expression

81
Q

Corpus callosum

A

a nerve tract that forms a bridge between the left and right hemispheres of the brain

82
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

responsible for the “rest and digest” response

83
Q

Sympathetic nervous system:

A

responsible for the “fight-or-flight” response

84
Q

Dendrites

A

branch off from the neuronal cell body to receive signals

85
Q

Axons

A

long extensions of the neuron that send signals to other cells

86
Q

Neuroglia

A

a diverse and important group of cells that support neurons

87
Q

Sodium-potassium pump

A

hydrolyzes 1 ATP to pump 3 sodium ions out of the cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell

88
Q

Absolute refractory period

A

period during which no stimuli can trigger another action potential

89
Q

Relative refractory period

A

period during which an action potential can occur only if the excitatory stimulus is greater than usual

90
Q

Synapse

A

meeting of two neurons that generally occurs between the end of a presynaptic axon and postsynaptic dendrite

91
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

small-molecule chemical messengers that pass between neurons at a synapse

92
Q

Reuptake

A

process of neurotransmitter removal in which a neurotransmitter is shuttled into the presynaptic neuron through a transporter on its membrane

93
Q

Afferent neurons

A

sensory neurons

94
Q

Efferent neurons

A

motor neurons

95
Q

Polysynaptic reflex arc

A

reflex arc that involves at least one interneuron linking afferent and efferent neurons

96
Q

Monosynaptic reflex arcs

A

reflex arcs with only one synapse between an afferent and efferent neuron

97
Q

Upper motor neuron

A

efferent neurons that synapse from the brain into the spinal cord

98
Q

Lower motor neuron

A

efferent neurons that synapse from the spinal cord onto the neuromuscular junction

99
Q

Skeletal muscle

A

tissue responsible for voluntary movement; consciously controlled and innervated by the somatic nervous system innervations

100
Q

Sarcomere

A

a unit of skeletal muscle, composed of actin and myosin

101
Q

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

a specialized membranous organelle in the sarcomere that contains high concentrations of Ca²⁺ ions

102
Q

Smooth muscle

A

involuntary muscle; controlled and innervated by the autonomic nervous system

103
Q

Cardiac muscle

A

muscle found in the heart; contains intercalated discs and may be multinucleated

104
Q

Myogenic activity

A

electrical activity independent of the brain that regulates the rhythm of the heart

105
Q

Actin-myosin crossbridge cycle

A

a 4-step cycle of ATP cleavage and actin-myosin binding that ultimately results in muscle contraction

106
Q

Neuromuscular junction

A

where the nervous system’s motor neurons interact with muscles through a chemical synapse

107
Q

Red bone marrow

A

typically found in spongy bone, and is the site of hematopoiesis, or red blood cell development

108
Q

Yellow bone marrow

A

typically found in the cavity of the diaphysis, and stores adipose (i.e., fat)

109
Q

Haversian canals

A

longitudinal canals through the center of osteons; contain blood vessels

110
Q

Osteoclasts

A

bone cells that resorb bone matrix and release minerals back into the blood; stimulated by parathyroid hormone

111
Q

Osteoblasts

A

bone cells that reform and grow bones; stimulated by calcitonin

112
Q

tendons

A

connect muscles to bones; formed by collagen

113
Q

Ligaments

A

connect bone to bone; formed by collagen

114
Q

Pharynx

A

tube at the back of the mouth where air passes through; also carries food

115
Q

Larynx

A

air tube that contains vocal cords; covered by epiglottis and separates air from food

116
Q

Trachea

A

receives air after larynx; commonly referred to as windpipe

117
Q

Bronchi

A

carry air from the trachea into the lungs, progressively branching into smaller tubes

118
Q

Alveoli

A

microscopic sacs covered with capillaries that are the site of gas exchange between lungs and blood

119
Q

Surfactant

A

a soapy substance that coats alveoli to prevent them from collapsing on themselves

120
Q

Lungs

A

main organ of the respiratory system; site of gas exchange

121
Q

Vasodilation

A

the opening of blood vessels, particularly capillaries, for different purposes

122
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

the opposite of vasodilation, the closing of blood vessels

123
Q

Goblet cells

A

cells that secrete mucus to help the respiratory system filter out particles and antigens

124
Q

Epithelial cells

A

type of cell in the respiratory tract that contains cilia that help sweep the mucus to the pharynx

125
Q

Diaphragm

A

primary muscle below the diaphragm that contracts and relaxes to control the flow of air in and out of the lungs

126
Q

Intercostal muscles

A

muscles in between the ribs that aid the diaphragm during inhalation

127
Q

Tidal volume

A

the volume of air contained in a normal breath

128
Q

Expiratory reserve volume

A

the total amount of air that can be exhaled after a passive exhalation

129
Q

Inspiratory reserve volume

A

the amount of air that can be inhaled after a passive inhalation

130
Q

Total lung capacity

A

the total amount of air that can be contained in the lungs after a full inhalation

131
Q

Residual volume

A

the total amount of air that remains in the lungs after a forceful exhalation

132
Q

Vital capacity

A

the total amount of air that can be forced out after a full inhalation

133
Q

Partial pressure

A

the pressure a specific gas within a mixture of gases exerts; commonly used for pressure of certain gases in air

134
Q

Acidosis

A

a condition in the blood where the pH is more acidic, caused by excess carbon dioxide in the blood

135
Q

Alkalosisa

A

condition where the blood pH is more basic, caused by a deficiency of carbon dioxide in the blood

136
Q

Heart:

A

the driving force for blood in the body

137
Q

Arteries

A

carry blood away from the heart

138
Q

Veins

A

carry blood back towards the heart

139
Q

Capillaries

A

blood vessels with very small radii that is the site for nutrient and gas exchange between blood and tissues

140
Q

Atria

A

the chambers in the heart that are responsible for receiving blood from veins and pushing it to the ventricles

141
Q

Ventricles

A

the chambers in the heart responsible for pumping the blood to the arteries and the rest of the body

MCAT (6 decks)

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