Biology Flashcards
Nucleotides
Four monomers that make up RNA and DNA
Polymers
The result of monomers being linked together through polymerization
Carbohydrates
Macromolecules that are a source of energy and structure for many organisms
Lipid
Macromolecules used by the body to store energy & form membranes and barriers around cell
Nucleic acid
Macromolecules made of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon and phosphorus
Protein
Macromolecules responsible for controlling many cell processes and serving as an enzyme within chemical reactions
Photosynthesis
The process of using light to make sugar from carbon dioxide and water
Biopolymer
Natural polymer produced by living organisms
Glycogen
Stores Energy I. The muscles and liver of humans and animals
Starches
Soluble helical sugar structures produced by plants and used to store energy
Cellulose
Dietary fiber; plants use it for rigid structures, particularly stems
Complex lipids
Molecules that can be broken down into smaller constituents, usually long chains of carbons
Simple lipids
Complex organic molecules that can’t be broken down easily (ex. Steroids)
Triol
Carbon chain with three alcohol groups (-OH groups)
Unsaturated fat
Long chain hydrocarbon with at least one double bond
Phospholipids
Long chain hydrocarbon held together by a phosphate group
Proteins size
Extremely large polypeptides with molecular masses between 5,000 and 40,000,000 g/mol
Amino acid
A molecule that has an NH(2) group and a carboxylic group on a single carbon
Polypeptides
Many amino acids bonded together by an amine bond
Cellular theory
Defining principles that describe characteristics of cell
Eukaryotic cells
Membrane bound nucleus, organelles, and multiple rod chromosomes
Plasma membrane
Micro molecules made of fats and proteins form external boundary
Organelle
Specialized cell structures with specific functions
Nucleoid
Part of nucleus with prokaryotes containing most of the genetic material
Peptidoglycan
Made of sugars and proteins to form cell wall for many bacteria
Bacteria
One of the 6 kingdoms of life; prokaryotes only
Pilus
Hair like structures on surface of bacterial cells
Flagellum
Microscopic appendage that enables movement on bacteria
Capsule
Sugar layer part of bacterial cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Fills cell and holds all material in place
Nuclear envelope
Adds extra protection layer to nucleus
Nucleolus
Produces ribosomes
Ribosomes
Involved in DNA translation and protein production
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Works with ribosomes to produce proteins
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Manufactures lipids or fats; detox function
Golgi apparatus
Finishes production of early-stage proteins and lipids produced by the endoplasmic reticulum
Lysosomes
Filled with enzymes capable of breaking down proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and old organelles
Peroxisomes
Breaks down lipids and fats
Vacuoles
Place for animal cells to store molecules before they’re released from the cell and when brought into the cell
Amyloplasts
Plant cells only; store and synthesize starch
Cytosol
Jelly-like fluid that fills the cytoplasm
Nucleoplasm
Semi soft fluid that contains nucleolus sand chromatin
Cisternae
Sacs and tubules in endoplasmic reticulum
Lumen
Internal part of Cisternae
Cis
Receiving opening of Golgi apparatus
Trans
Where proteins leave the Golgi apparatus
Cristae
Folds in the inner membrane of the mitochondria
Mitochondrial matrix
Outer membrane surrounding mitochondria
Interphase
Mitosis; Cell isn’t dividing but May be growing and replicating DNA
Prophase
Mitosis; No nuclear envelope and prepares to divide by tightly condensing chromosomes, and the chromosomes pair up
Metaphase
Mitosis; Cell begins to elongate and chromosomes line up along the center of the cell
Anaphase
Mitosis; Cell Continues to elongate, chromosomes are pulled apart
Telophase
Mitosis; Cell develops a nuclear envelope and begins to pinch in the middle
Cytokinesis
Division of the cell’s cytoplasm to form two daughter cells
Meiosis 1
Halving number of chromosomes in parent cells
Meiosis 2
Generates 2 more haploid daughter cells from the duplicated sister chromatids present in meiosis 1
G1 checkpoint
Is cell capable of dividing? Size, DNA integrity, nutrient level, molecular signaling
G2 checkpoint
Ensures no DNA is damaged during interphase. Apoptosis will occur
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death
M checkpoint (spindle)
If the spindle fibers are properly attached to the sister chromatids
Cyclins
Proteins with constantly changing concentrations, several types associated with different phases/checkpoints
Genetics
Study of heredity
Genes
Stretches of DNA specific for a characteristic ie. eye color
Alleles
Specific area of a gene that code for a specific characteristics trait ie. blue or brown etc
Gregor Mendel
Father of modern genetics; pea plants experiments
Hybridization
Crossing of two genetically different organisms to make a third organism
Genome
All genes of entire human being, mapped out in 90’s
Character
Feature inherited from individuals
Trait
A feature inherited that’s actually exhibited
Mendelian inheritance
Dictate how genetic information is passed from parents to offspring through generations
Breeding
Mating and production of offspring of living organisms such as plants and animals
True breeding
In plants, offspring have exhibited same traits over many generations
Cross breeding
Specific type in different species/varieties are mated with each other to produce hybrid
Pollination
Transfer of pollen from male to female part of plant
P generation
True bred parent plants
F1 Generation
1st generation of hybrid offspring, identifies dominant gene
F2 Generation
Starts to show effects of hybridization, mix of traits
Phenotype
Set of observable characteristics (dominant/recessive)
Genotype
Genetic composition
Homozygous
2 copies of the same allele
Heterozygous
Dominant and recessive gene
Law of segregation
Every organism acquires 2 alleles for each trait, 1 from each parent
Law of independent assortment
Seperation of alleles for a given gene occurs independently to that of any other gene
Law of dominance
Offspring inherits one gene encoding a version of a given characteristic from its father and other from its mother
Punnett square
Way to determine probabilities of offspring exhibiting certain characteristics
Incomplete dominance
One phenotype doesn’t prevail over the other, phenotypes are mixed ex red snapdragon + white = pink
Codominance
Both dominant and recessive traits express together ex. A blood + B blood = AB blood
Sickle cell anemia
Disease caused by genetic mutation in hemoglobin protein. Clump together causing a half moon shape
Chromosome theory of inheritance
Genetic material passed down is in chromosomes; Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri
3 components of nucleotide
Phosphate group, a sugar (oxy/deoxy), and a base (c,g,a,u/t)
Replication
The process by which DNA is copied to form dna for new cells
Mutation
DNA sequence with altered nucleotides
Gene expression
Tightly controlled process by which information stored in DNA is converted into instructions for making proteins
Central dogma
Framework of how to understand two-step process of gene expression (transcription and translation)
Transcription
Form a molecule called RNA, guanine, adenine, cytosine, uracil
Translation
Using transcribed RNA sequence to create proteins
Codon
3-letter DNA or RNA sequence that contains information
DNA
Chemical compound that resembles a long chain with links made of individual units called nucleotides
RNA
Made of nucleotides
RNA essential functions
Convert genetic code from DNA to proteins; regulate process of gene expression; facilitate biological reactions; senses and communicate response to cellular signals; exists as gen. Material found in some viruses
mRNA
Carries info from dna to the ribosome to enable protein synthesis
tRNA(transfer)
Gather appropriate amino acid from cytoplasm and deliver to ribosome and 3 letter code comes up
rRNA (ribosomal)
Interacts with set of proteins to form ribosomes
Cell proliferation
Process of growth and division of cells that produce many cells from original cells
Differentiation
Process cells undergo to develop features that enable them to fulfill specific roles
Direct contact
Cell interaction; cells next to each other, small channels between sallow small molecules to diffuse from one cell to another
Paracrine signaling
Cell interaction; produces a chemical signal by a cell and diffuses over a short distance to reach nearby cells.
Synaptic signaling
cells separated by gap and neurotransmitters diffuse to send message from one cell to another
Autocrine signaling
Cell signals to itself. Important in development but can play a role in cancer as well
Endocrine signaling
Signaling conducted by hormones
Cell movement
Important part of organismal development; wound healing and immune system responses; human brain development; cells divide and follow predetermined paths marked by extra cellular molecular gradients
Conservative model of replication
Two original strands of DNA pair up again after being used as a template to form an entirely new double helix DNA molecule
Semi conservative model
Parental cells separate into two strands, each a template to create complimentary strands
Dispersive model
Fragments of parent strand and new dna strand present in both copies
Enzymes
Proteins that can speed up reactions
Initiation (1st role of polymerase)
Location is targeted for unwinding; helicases break hydrogen bonds, other proteins prevent from joining again; topoisomerases surround unzipped dna strands and relax the helices
Termination (2nd step for polymerase)
RNA primers removed and replaced with DNA and ligase completes sugar-phosphate backbone. DNA is checked for mistakes during replication
Nonsense mutation
Single base pair that ends translation early
Frameshift mutation
Mutation inserts or deletes nucleotides from their sequence
Non disjunction
Sister chromatids fail to seperate during meiosis
Chromosome
Molecule of DNA contains part or all genetic material
Karyotype
Organized profile of an organisms chromosomes; number, size, relative shape, appearance
Euploid
Organism with appropriate number of chromosomes
Aneuploid
Organism with more or less appropriate number of chromosomes
Shotgun sequencing
Genomic sequencing method used to determine sequences of long dna strands by breaking into many small fragments
Lessons from Genome Project
HG contains 3billion nucleotide bases; 2% are protein-coding genes; much of HG is result of genetic code from viruses; 3 million locations
Selective breeding
Results in offspring with desired characteristics
Inbreeding
Individuals with similar characteristics continue to be bred to keep certain sets of traits
Transformationalism
Use or disuse of a body part resulting in heritable change
Uniformitarianism
Basic laws of physics and chemistry don’t change over time
Population
Same species living in common area; maintain by increasing death rate(positive) or decreasing birth rate (preventative)
Global difference in species
Species from one part of the world look different from another part; some species limited to one part
Local difference in species
Species vary across geographic area variations depending on ecological niche
Temporal difference in species
Species change over time differing among members; collected fossils demonstrate this
On the Origin of Species
1859; evolution occurs at level of population
Perpetual change
Living world in a constant stage of flux without a fixed state; supported by fossil record
Common descent
all life originated from a shared ancestor
Multiplication of species
New species evolve from existing species splitting and transforming. Adds spatial dimension
Gradualism
Small steady changes produce trait different over a long period of time
Natural Selection
Net forces favor new adaptations that give advantage; survival of the fittest
Ontogeny
Development of an individual over the course of its life
Phylogeny
How a species has evolved over time
Recapulation
Biogenetic law
End Ordovician extinction
444 MYA; 85% species lost inc. trilobites cords and brachiopods
End Devonian extinction
380-359 MYA ; 75% species lost trilobites corals and placoderms
End Permian extinction
252 MYA largest in history volcanic eruptions 90% lost marine invertebrates and large number of insects
End Triassic extinction
201 MYA; 80% loss many reptiles not dinos
End Cretaceous extinction
65.5 MYA; asteroid in Yucatan peninsula 75% loss included dinos
