Biological-Stress

Question 1

Define stress

Answer 1

The subjective experience of a lack of fit between a person and their environment. (I.e. where the perceived demands of a situation are greater than the person’s perceived ability to cope.

Question 2

Describe the acute stress response.

Answer 2

The SAM (Sympathomedullary Pathway)
Is activated: Short lived stressors arouse the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system which arouses the person for fight or flight.  At the same time the adrenal medulla releases adrenaline into the bloodstream boosting the supply of glucose and oxygen to the brain.  
This leads to physiological changes:
•Increased Heart Rate
•Increased Blood Pressure
•Increased Breathing Rate
•Mouth Becomes Dry
•Digestion Stops

Question 3

Describe the chronic stress response

Answer 3

The pituitary adrenal system involves the hypothalamus which leads to the production of CRF. This causes the pituitary gland to release ACTH into the bloodstream which travels to the adrenal cortex which releases cortisol into the bloodstream. Cortisol increases the amount of glucose in the blood stream.

Question 4

Effects of acute stress on the immune system:

Kielcolt-Glaser et al. (1984)

Answer 4

Aim: To find out if exam stress affects the immune system
Method: Natural experiment
IV= time before the exam 1 month before (high stress), during the exam (high stress)
DV= NK cells activity
The students were also given questionnaires to assess psychological variables such as life events.
Sample: 75 American medical students
Findings: NK cell activity was lower during the exams.
Conclusion: Examination stress reduced the immune function, potentially leaving the individual vulnerable to illness.

Question 5

Evaluate Kielcolt-Glaser et al. (1984)

Answer 5

Sample:
 American Ps: Results cannot be generalised as different cultures have different lifestyle factors which can affect the immune system i.e. diet.
 Medical students: Stronger immune system as in daily contact with patients carrying new germs, young Ps (students) therefore stronger immune system than younger and older people.
Natural experiment:
 Lack of control of extraneous variables (give an example and explain how it could affect the immune system).
Other possible points:
 The measure of the immune system is very objective (NK cells activity) and scientific.

Question 6

Effects of chronic stress on the immune system

Answer 6

Kiecolt- Glaser et al. (1995)
•Chronic stress reduces the ability of the immune system to heal in women caring for relatives with Alzheimer’s Disease.
Matched pairs design
Wounds healed 9 days later than control groups
Assessed using photographs and hydrogen peroxide

Question 7

What are life events/ life changes and why do they cause stress?

Answer 7

• Major life events are significant events that lead to life changes. These require a significant adjustment in various aspects of a person’s life and therefore cause stress. E.g. bereavement, divorce, marriage.
• These take up our “Psychic Energy”
• Constantly having to think, and use up energy, leaves us feeling exhausted and less able to cope with other parts of our lives.
• The bigger the change, the more adjustment has to be made; therefore the more energy has to be used.

Question 8

What is the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)?

Answer 8

The Social Readjustment Rating Scale was developed by Homes and Rahe (1967) as a way to measure life changes.
43 life events were taken from 5000 patient records.
400 Ps scored the life events in terms of the readjustment needed; marriage = 50.
Scores for individual life events were totalled and averaged to produce a life change unit (LCU) for each event.
A score of over 150 LCU is viewed as a life crisis and increases the chance of stress-related illness by 30%
A score of over 300 LCU is a major crisis and increases the risk to 50%.

Question 9

Study supporting the effects of life events on health.

Answer 9

Rahe et al.(1970)
Procedure: This was a correlational study. Using 2700 members of the US navy. All life events of previous 6 months recorded – before a tour of duty-using an adapted version of the SRRS. During the tour of duty – illness score calculated.
Findings: A positive correlation (+0.118) between the life events score and the illness score.
Conclusion: Experiencing more life changing events increases the chance of stress related illness. However the correlation was weak so other factors are involved.

Question 10

Evaluate Rahe et al.(1970)

Answer 10

Sample:
Very large sample.
American Ps: Results cannot be generalised as different cultures have different lifestyle factors which can affect health i.e. diet..
Members of the Navy do not have the same lifestyle than most other people, for example they have less social support from family.
Correlation
Does not show cause and effect relationship between the factors, other factors could be involved (give example and link to health).
Questionnaires
Social desirability bias
Demand characteristics
Retrospective data (Ps might have forgotten some events).

Question 11

Evaluate SRRS as a way to measure stress

Answer 11

It does not take into account individual differences and how these influence the impact of life events.
It relies on self-report questionnaires: Social desirability might influence the response (i.e. might not want to report some events: Imprisonment).
It relies on retrospective data: People might have forgotten some events.
Most of the studies done are correlational studies therefore they do not show a cause and effect relationship between the factors.
It does not take into account the everyday stressors such as traffic or meeting deadlines.

Question 12

What are daily hassles and uplifts?

Answer 12

• Daily hassles: the irritating, frustrating, distressing demands that to some degree characterise everyday transactions with the environment.
• Daily uplifts: the opposite, the minor positive experiences of everyday life, for example, receiving a compliment at work.

Question 13

What evidence is there that daily hassles affect health? (key study)

Answer 13

DeLongis et al (1982)
•Method: 100 participants from San Fransisco (age 45-64, well-educated with high income). Completed 4 questionnaires every month for a year. (Hassles scale, uplifts scale, life events questionnaire, health questionnaire).
•Findings: Frequency and intensity of hassles were significantly correlated with impaired overall health status and bodily symptoms. Uplifts had little effect on health. No relationships were found between life events and health during the study.

Question 14

Evaluate DeLongis et al. (1982)

Answer 14

Sample
Well educated with a high income means they may have very different hassles to the rest of the population (e.g. not as many money hassles).
Procedure
Retrospective recall- difficult to remember hassles after a month.
SRRS and hassles questionnaires could lead to social desirability bias or ambiguous questions.

Question 15

Evaluate daily hassles and uplifts as a way to measure stress.

Answer 15

The accumulation effect- lots of studies show that the build-up of daily hassles can lead to stress.
DeLongis et al. later added a section to their questionnaire where you could rate how hassling or uplifting a factor is.
The amplification effect- it could be the major life events/ changes that make people more vulnerable to daily hassles.
Retrospective recall- it is difficult to remember daily hassles.
Individual differences–different people find different things hassling.

Question 16

What are workplace stressors?

Answer 16

Workplace stressors are aspects of the workplace environment which elicit a stress response therefore which we experience as stressful. 
1.	Relationships at work
–	E.g. lacking support
2.	Work pressures
–	E.g. deadlines
3.	The physical environment
–	E.g.  noise
4.	Stresses linked to our role
–	E.g. job security
5.	Lack of control
–	E.g. influence over our own work

Question 17

Study into the effects of workplace stressors

Answer 17

Marmot et al (1997)
Method: Longitudinal study, 7372 civil service employees in London filled in a self-report questionnaire and were also observed and given a health check. Job control was assessed on two occasions three years apart.
Results: workers with low job control were four times as likely to die of a heart attack and suffer from CHD.
Conclusion: low control is related to higher stress and a greater risk of cardiovascular disease (e.g. CHD).

Question 18

Evaluate Marmot et al (1997)

Answer 18

 Biased sample (only London based civil servants) so can’t generalise to the rest of the population.
 Lower grade workers were more likely to smoke and have bad diets which could have contributed to their higher risk of cardiovascular disease.
 Johansson et al. (1978) also supports lack of control as a risk factor for stress.

Question 19

Describe personality type A and Type B

Answer 19

Personality Type A:
•Competitive, time urgent, impatient, hostile and aggressive.

Personality Type B:
•Relaxed, one thing at a time, patient, express feelings.

Question 20

Study supporting the influence of personality type on the effect of stress

Answer 20

Friedman and Rosenman (1974)
Procedure: Using structured interviews, 3200 men aged 39-59 were categorised as type A, type B or type X (balanced between A and B). Assessment based on answers to interview and behaviour during interview.
The men were healthy (no CHD) at the start of the research. The sample was followed up for 8.5 years to assess lifestyle and health outcomes.
Findings: At the end of the study 257 men had developed CHD. 70% of those were from the type A group.
These results were significant even when risk factors such as smoking and obesity were taken into account.
Conclusion: Type A behaviour pattern is a risk factor for heart disease.

Question 21

Evaluate Friedman and Rosenman (1974)

Answer 21

Sample:
Very large sample so the results are not influenced by individual characteristics.
 American Ps: Results cannot be generalised as different cultures have different lifestyle factors which can affect health i.e. diet.
 Ps were men: Women might be affected differently so we cannot generalise the results.
Interview:
 Social desirability
 The study has high ecological validity as there was no manipulation or control of any variables however this makes it difficult to replicate.
Correlational
 study so does show cause and effect relationship

Question 22

What is hardiness?

Answer 22

Hardiness is a cluster of personality traits which help individuals deal with stress (Kobassa).

Control - Hardy people see themselves as being in charge of their life, not controlled by outsides factors which they cannot control.
Commitment - Hardy people are involved in the world around them and have a sense of purpose.
Challenge - Hardy people see challenges as problems to be overcome rather than as stressors.

Question 23

Study supporting the influence of hardiness on the effect of stress

Answer 23

Kobasa (1979)

Method: 800 male American Business executives given SRRS. 150 identified as being “high-stress”, of these some had low illness records and some had high. A questionnaire was used to test hardiness.
Findings: high stress and low illness participants had hardy characteristics, high stress and high illness participants had non-hardy characteristics.
Conclusion: Hardiness can act as a buffer to prevent stress from leading to illness.

Question 24

What are the physiological methods of stress management?

Answer 24

Benzodiazepines (BZs)- often used for the short-term relief of anxiety (i.e. valium). Enhance the action of a natural brain chemical, GABA.
GABA tells the neurons to slow down or stop firing, the action is supported by the BZs . The brain excitatory neurotransmitters are reduced and the person feels calmer.

Beta-blockers - used in treatment of high blood pressure (hypertension) i.e. propranolol. Reduce the activation of the cardiovascular system by sympathetic fibres of the autonomic nervous system.

Question 25

Evaluation of the physiological methods of stress management

Answer 25

 Drugs are effective in reducing the symptoms such as anxiety (BZs) and high blood pressure (beta-blockers).
 They are fairly cheap and easy to use.
 BZs are fast acting so they can be useful in case of acute stress.

 They have side-effects: BZs are addictive; beta blocker can cause diabetes if taken long-term.
 They do not target the source of stress or develop new skills in the individuals so when the medication is stopped the symptoms are likely to return.
 They can provide the space needed for individuals to develop more long-lasting coping strategies.

Question 26

What are the two psychological methods of coping with stress?

Answer 26

• Kobasa’s Hardiness training.

* Meichenbaum’s Stress Inoculation Training (SIT).

Question 27

Describe Hardiness training

Answer 27

It is a form of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
Hardiness Training involves an assessment of how much stress a person is experiencing and how hardy their attitudes are, followed by training designed to teach people how to cope with stress, seek social support and relax.
a. Focusing: Clients are trained to spot signs of stress, this encourages them to recognise stressful situations so to identify stressors.
b. Reliving stressful encounters: Clients analyse recent stressful situations and think about how they could have been resolved. This gives them an insight into their current coping strategies and how they might be more effective.
c. Self improvement: Clients initially recognise and take on challenges that they can cope with before moving on to more complex problems.

Question 28

Evaluation of hardiness training

Answer 28

 Hardiness training targets both perception and coping, therefore reducing the gap between demands and abilities.
 By developing new skills, it provides the client with ability to cope with a variety of stressful situations they may encounter in the future.

 Hardiness training takes time and commitment as it may take weeks before improvement is felt. This could be an additional source of stress.
 It is an expensive treatment as it requires the involvement of a clinical psychologist.
 It does not target the source of the stress.

Question 29

Describe Stress Inoculation Therapy (SIT)

Answer 29

Conceptualisation phase
Clients are encouraged to relive the stressful event and analyse different features of the situation. From this the clients get a better understanding of the nature of the stress and their reactions to it.

Skills acquisition phase
Clients are taught specific strategies for coping with stressful situations. This might include relaxation, increased control and social skills.

Application phase
The client goes out into the real world and put their training to the test.

Question 30

Evaluate SIT

Answer 30

 SIT targets both perception and coping, therefore reducing the gap between demands and abilities.
 By developing new coping strategies it provides the client with the ability to cope with a variety of stressful situations they may encounter in the future.- Meichenbaum (1977) found that SIT was more effective than SD in treating snake phobias as well as a second non-treated phobia. Shows that SIT can inoculate against future stressful situations.

 SIT takes time and commitment as it may take weeks before improvement is felt. This could be an additional source of stress.
 It is an expensive treatment as it requires the involvement of a clinical psychologist; this might limit its accessibility.
 It does not target the source of the stress.