Biological Psychology and Science Inquiry Flashcards
The Nervous System is Split into the…
Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Carries sensory info up the spinal cord to the brain via sensory neurons and carries motor messages to the PNS via motor neurons (brain and spinal cord).
Brain
Made up of nerve tissue that controls the functions of the body.
Spinal Cord
Cable of nerve fibres that runs from the base of the brain to the lower back and connects the brain to PNS.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Carries sensory info to the CNS from the body and carries motor messages from the brain to the organs and muscles (all nerves outside the CNS).
Denominations within PNS
Autonomic Nervous System (splits into the sympathetic and parasympathetic) and the Somatic Nervous System.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Carries messages from the brain to internal glands and organs via motor neurons. Carries sensory messages to brain about activity level of glands and organs via sensory neurons. Controls involuntary muscle movement, therefore regulates internal organ function and gland function (splits into the sympathetic and parasympathetic NS).
Sympathetic Nervous System (SyNS)
Regulates the glands and internal organ function to physically prepare body for increased activity during heightened physical/emotional arousal (flight or fight).
Parasympathetic Nervous System (PaNS)
Calms the body after being under the control of the SNS. Maintains energy level suitable for normal bodily functioning.
Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
Carries sensory info. received by sensory receptor cells to the CNS via sensory neurons. Carries motor messages from the CNS to the skeletal muscles via motor neurons. Controls voluntary and involuntary skeletal muscle movement (reflex).
Neurons
Cells of the NS that communicates with each other as well as muscle and gland cells.
Dendrites
Extensions of the cell body that receive neurotransmitters from pre-synaptic neurons and convert them into electrical nerve impulses that are conducted toward the cell body.
Soma
(Cell body) Contains nucleus that controls activities of the neuron.
Axon
Long projection off soma that conducts electrical nerve impulses and carries them away from the cell body.
Axon terminal
Enlarged end points of axon branches that store neurotransmitters and releases them into synaptic cleft.
Myelin sheath
Fatty covering of the axon that acts as an insulator protecting the axon from stimuli that could interfere with the electrical nerve impulse transmission. It also increases the speed of the electrical nerve impulse transmission and helps improve the conduction of the transmission.
Different types of neurons
Sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.
Sensory neurons
Processes sensory info from the sense organs and carries the sensory messages to the CNS (afferent).
Motor neurons
Carries motor messages from the CNS to the muscles, glands and organs (efferent).
Interneurons
Act as a connection between sensory neurons and motor neurons, and transfers messages from sensory neuron, to motor neurons within CNS.
Neurotransmitters
Molecules found within the nervous system that act as chemical messengers. They allow neurons to communicate by relaying info between them across the synapse, as well as neurons to glands and muscle cells.
The electro-chemical signal
Neurons carry electro-chemical signals as an electrical nerve impulse (the electrical) travels through the neuron and neurotransmitters (the chemical) travel between the synapse and communicating neurons.
Direction of transmission of electro-chemical signal
The electrical nerve impulse (aka, action potential) travels in one direction, from the dendrites to the cell body, then along the axon to axon terminals. Once the action potential reaches the axon terminals, it causes the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. The speed is determined by the myelin sheath.
Action Potential
Electrical impulse that travels along the axon of neurons toward the axon terminals where it causes the release of neurotransmitters.
How info moves between the neurons
Rush of action potential causes synaptic vesicles found in the axon terminal to open up. They contain neurotransmitters (chemicals that alters activity in the neurons, e.g. serotonin and dopamine). They’re released into the synaptic gap, where they attach to special receptor sites on the dendrites of the receiving neuron.
Synapse
Axon terminal of a pre-synaptic neuron, the synaptic cleft and the dendrite of a post-synaptic neuron. It allows neural transmission by converting the electrical nerve impulse into a chemical signal and then back again.
Synaptic Cleft
Space between two neurons (dendrite to axon terminal).
Pre-synaptic Neuron and Post-synaptic Neuron
The neuron that transmits a signal into the synapse is called the pre-synaptic neuron, and the neuron that receives the signal is called the post-synaptic neuron.
Hindbrain
Coordinates sensory and motor messages entering and leaving the spinal cord, and is responsible for balance and coordination (medulla oblongata and cerebellum).
Medulla Oblongata
Lowest part of the brainstem that relays info between the spinal cord and brain, and regulates the respiratory and cardiovascular systems.
Cerebellum
Sits underneath cerebrum. Involved in balance, judging distance and coordination of fine motor movement.
Midbrain
Receives sensory messages from all sense (except smell) and sends info to the forebrain (reticular formation).
Reticular Formation
Network of nuclei located within the length of the brainstem that helps maintain wakefulness/alertness, and aids in the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle.
Forebrain
Plays a role in cognition, emotion, behaviour and processing sensory info (cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus).
Cerebrum
Consists of ‘white matter’ on the inside. The cerebrum is split into two hemispheres.
White Matter
Whitish nerve tissue largely comprising of myelinated axons.
Thalamus
Double lobed structure located just above the brainstem that receives sensory info, except smell, and transmits info to the cerebral cortex.
Hypothalamus
Structure that sits below the thalamus and regulates sleeping, eating, body temp, and sexual drive. It also regulates the release of hormones from the pituitary gland that sits beneath it.
Cerebral Cortex
Outermost layer of the brain made up of nerve cell tissue that is responsible for higher order processes such as memory, language, reasoning, emotion and decision making. This 2-4 mm thick layer of tissue tits on top of the cerebrum and has deep furrows to increase surface area. it is made of unmyelinated neurons and cell bodies of neurons (collectively grey matter).
Grey Matter
Unmyelinated neurons and cell bodies of neurons.
Left and Right Hemispheres
The hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum, and each hemisphere is dominant in certain tasks. They had contralateral control of the body.
Hemispheric Specialisation
Where each hemisphere is specialised, or dominant in certain fields and in doing certain tasks.
Hemispheric Contralateral Control
Where the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body.
Left Hemisphere
Responsible for producing speech, comprehending language, writing, reasoning, logical thinking, mathematic processes and specialises in sequential info processing.
Right Hemisphere
Responsible for drawing, spatial orientation, music and art awareness, and creativity. Specialises in experiencing, expressing and comprehending emotion and involved in tuition.
Corpus Callosum
Thick band of nerve fibres connecting cerebral hemispheres and allowing the transfer of info between them. Largest white matter structure to allow optimum nerve impulse transmission between neurons.
Cerebral Cortex Lobes
Frontal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and parietal lobe.
Frontal Lobe
Controls voluntary movement and speech production. Responsible for planning, decision making, problem solving, ability to reason, and organise info, expression of personality, recognition of emotions and impulse control.
Temporal Lobe
Responsible for understanding speech and processing smell, interprets auditory info, involved in facial recognition, recognising body language, and long term memory formation.
Occipital Lobe
Responsible for visual perception and processing, interpreting visual info and for the perception of depth and distance, involved in facial recognition.
Parietal Lobe
Responsible for processing sensory info relating to touch, spatial awareness, proprioception, involved with integration of sensory info (manages hearing, sight, etc).
Proprioception
Perception of location and movement of certain body parts.
Broca’s Area
Controls the fine muscle movement responsible for production of articulate speech. Impairment in this area is referred to as Broca’s aphasia.
Wernicke’s Area
Responsible for understanding of language and the production of meaningful speech. Impairment in this area is referred to as Wernicke’s aphasia.
Pre-frontal Cortex
Coordinates executive function (ability to predict consequence of behaviours as well as the ability to regulate and recognise emotions).
Primary Motor Cortex
Strip of cerebral cortex running through the frontal lobe that controls voluntary movement of body. Different zones within corresponds to various parts of the body, with the size of each zone representing the importance of the body part (according to how often it is used - human homunculus).
Primary Sensory Cortex
Strip of cerebral cortex running through the parietal lobes that registers and processes sensory info. Human homunculus according to sensitivity (measured by the density of sensory receptor).
Primary Auditory Cortex
Area within both temporal lobes that registers and processes auditory info that is received from the ears.
Primary Visual Cortex
Area within both occipital lobes that registers and processes visual info that is received from the eyes.
Phineas Gage: before
1848, working as a foreman building a railroad. The 25 year old was described as active, organises, reasonable and calm.
Phineas Gage: during
While compacting powder in a hole in preparation for blasting, he got distracted and hit rock, causing a blast that forced the iron into the left side of his face under his cheek bone and exiting his skull. He convulsed but after a few minutes was able to speak.
Phineas Gage: after
A year later, a doctor that operated on him returned. Gage had applied to become a foreman again, but had been rejected because he had become uncaring, impulsive, and impatient.
Phineas Gage: lesson
The shift was due to damage to his left frontal lobe. This case contributed to the understanding that the frontal lobe is responsible for expression of personality, problem solving and impulse control.
Roger Sperry: animals
Before using human volunteers, he had used cats and monkeys. From this research he had deducted that the hemispheres worked independently of each other when the corpus callosum was cut (and thus finding out it acts as a communicator).
Roger Sperry: people
(1959-1968) Sperry conducted research on people that had split brain surgery to treat their epilepsy. Optic nerves from each eyes cross over at the optic chiasm so input from the left field of view is processed in the right hemisphere and vice versa, irrespective of whether the corpus callosum was intact.
Roger Sperry: experiment
Participants with a severed corpus callosum were asked to focus on a black dot, and words were flashed on either side. Participants were flashed a word on the right, which they had no trouble saying (process in the left), but when it was processed on the left, they couldn’t say it, but could draw it.
Roger Sperry: results
They demonstrated that the corpus callosum is required for full functioning of the brain, and that the LH is responsible for understanding language and speech articulation, while the RH can recognise language but can’t verbally articulate it.
Walter Freeman: context
Walter (with James Watts) was the first person to perform a frontal lobotomy in the USA and used the media to help propel the popularity. He claimed that the mentally ill were obsessed with their own problems due to being self aware.
Walter Freeman: belief
He believed the thalamus to be the centre of human emotion, and so severing of the neural connections between the thalamus and pre-frontal cortex would eliminate excessive emotions and stabilise personality.
Walter Freeman: goal
His goal was to reduce agitation, and with that was a consequence, others developed apathy, decreased concentration and a numbness in emotional response.
Walter Freeman: fall
Advancements in the development of antipsychotic medications and knowledge of the many patients who had suffered led to the decline of Freeman’s reputation and the popularity of lobotomy.
Still Pictures
2D single static images (CT and MRI).
Dynamic Pictures
3D that change in real time (fMRI).
Structural Imaging
Neuroimaging techniques producing scans showing brain structure (CT and MRI).
Functional Imaging
Neuroimaging techniques producing scans showing brains function in real time (fMRI).
Temporal Resolution
Ability to detect when brain activity occurred. The greater the ability, the higher the temporal resolution (EEG).
Spatial Resolution
Ability to differentiate which specific part of the brain is active (fMRI).
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Functional technique that shows brain activity in real time.
EEG: how it works
Electrodes are placed in the scalp and brain waves is detected, then carried via wires to an EEG recording machine where it is displayed. Electrical changes within thousands of neurons are detected at the same time.
EEG: uses
It helps diagnose general seizure disorders, records to analyse for sleep research, shows which part of the brain is used when doing mental tasks and can be used to confirm in comatose brain dead.
EEG: strengths
High temporal resolution and is safe/non-invasive.
EEG: limitations
Low spatial resolution due to conductive gel (used for temporal resolution) and is messy due to conductive gel.
Computed Tomography (CT)
Structural neuroimaging technique that produces still images.
CT: how it works
Rotating x-ray beam moves 360* around patient while taking images. A computer pieces the 2D x-rays and produces a 3D reconstruction that the technician can scroll through to view slices of the brain.
CT: uses
Checks for fractures in skull, diagnoses brain tumours and aneurysms, measures brain tumour size and helps assess brain injury from trauma.
CT: strengths
Patients with metal (pacemakers, etc.) can have it, and it can image bone, soft tissue, and blood vessels.
CT: limitations
Patient is exposed to ionising radiation (increases chance of cancer later in life).
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Structural neuroimaging technique producing still pictures.
MRI: how it works
Uses strong magnetic field and radio waves to produce pictures of the brain. This field lines up the protons in hydrogen atoms then short bursts of radio waves tip the protons out of alignment. As the protons realign, they release radio signals which are detected in the scanner. Different structures produce different signals, distinguishing them.
MRI: uses
Diagnoses brain tumours and aneurysms, measures the size of brain tumours, assesses the effects of a stroke, and helps assess brain injury from trauma.
MRI: strengths
More detailed images than CT, and does not expose patients to ionising radiation.
MRI: limitations
Patient can’t have metal on them, and some MRI scanners produce loud noises, so ear protection must be worn.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
Functional neuroimaging technique producing dynamic pictures.
fMRI: how it works
Uses strong magnetic field and radio waves to show where the neurons are consuming oxygen in the brain real time. The scanner creates a 3D map of brain broken into tiny ‘volume blocks’ called voxels. When neurons in the brain communicate, energy is used. Oxygen rushes to the area via blood causing voxel to turn red, before returning to normal, once the oxygen stops rushing to the active neurons. The scanner detects the colour change due to the high level of iron in oxygenated blood, and this is attracted to magnets. Difference in magnets is shown in shades of light and dark and is called the BOLD (blood oxygen level dependant) signal.
fMRI: uses
Shows what part of brain is active during task performance (is used for brain tumour removal), assess the effects of a stroke, and can detect brain activity of patients with neurological conditions.
fMRI: strengths
High spatial resolution and doesn’t expose patient to ionising radiation.
fMRI: limitations
Patient can’t have metal and has low temporal resolution because it relies on the body’s response to metabolic changes (BOLD signal).
Ethics
Refers to the moral principles and codes of behaviour that apply to all psychologists.
The Consideration of the Ethics Committee
Beneficence and non-maleficence. Psychologists must show respect by consideration of individuals welfare and uniqueness, must show justice with fair treatment to all, and must show integrity by being committed to honesty.
Beneficence
Whether the research is considered to maximise benefits to society.
Non-maleficence
The fact that research (and psychologists) are obligated to minimise/prevent harm to participants.
Ethical Guideless
Potential harm, informed consent, withdrawal rights, deception, confidentiality, privacy, voluntary participation, and debriefing.
(EG) Potential Harm
The potential harm mustn’t outweigh potential benefits.
(EG) Informed Consent
Written and given consent prior the research.
(EG) Withdrawal Rights
Right of participant to withdraw without consequence.
(EG) Deception
Deception shouldn’t occur unless necessary.
(EG) Confidentiality
Participants right to privacy with access, storage and disposal of their information given.
(EG) Privacy
Collecting only the personal info related to the experiment and protection from intrusion.
(EG) Voluntary Participation
Participants must willingly partake without coercion or pressure.
(EG) Debriefing
Researchers must inform participants about study’s true purpose after experiment. This is where all deception is revealed and results/conclusions given.
Animals in Experiments
Replacement, reduction and refinement.
(AE) Replacement
Can purpose be achieved without animals?
(AE) Reduction
Try to obtain same results with fewer animals, but not so few that the results are skew and the animals are wasted.
(AE) Refinement
Alleviate/minimise potential pain and distress. Enhance animal wellbeing.
Aim
Statement that explains what you intend to investigate.
Identifying Aim
To identify your aim in research, first find out what questions you want to answer.
Research Question
Is formed on aims.
Variables
Factors that can be manipulated, controlled or measured.
Independent Variable
Conditions that experimenter systematically manipulates to gauge its effect on the DV. Suspected cause of difference in behaviour/results.
Dependent Variable
What is affected by experimental condition and what is observed or measure in an experiment, used to measure effect of IV.
Extraneous Variable
Any variable other than the IV that causes a change in the results (differences in research participants, ‘experimenter effects’ and ‘artificiality’.)
Experimenter Effects
Differences in treatment that the research provides participants.
Artificiality
The unnatural environment the experiment is conducted in.
Confounding variable
Uncontrolled variable that causes change in the DV.
Control Variable
Stays constant in research condition.
Hypothesis
Statement or testable prediction about the likely outcome of an experiment. It makes a prediction about the direction of interaction between the IV and DV.
Directional Hypothesis
States which way you think the results are going to (“Adults who have been deprived of sleep for 24 hours will have more cold symptoms in the following week after exposure to a virus than adults not sleep deprived”).
Non-directional Hypothesis
Simply states there will be a difference (“There will be a difference between the number of cold symptoms experienced in the following week after exposure to a virus for those adults who had not slept and had slept”).
Inquiry Questions
Seek to explore/describe phenomena. They aim to discover problems and opportunities from responders, be open ended in nature, be easy to understand and digest with no need for clarification.
Research Methods
Experimental research and non-experimental research.
Experimental Research
Investigates ‘cause and effect’ relationship between two or more variables, tests a hypothesis, investigates whether changing one variable has an effect on another.
Non-experimental Research
Doesn’t have variables that are manipulate, researchers observe and describe variables around them to understand their relationships.
Experimental Research Method splits sample into two…
Experimental group and control group.
Experimental Group
Exposed to experimental conditions (independent variable).
Control Group
Not exposed to experimental condition. Provides standard for comparison.
Experimental Research Designs
May take place between subjects and within subjects. There is the independent groups design, matched participants design, and repeated measures design.
(ERD) Between Subjects
Between two groups.
(ERD) Within Subjects
Where the same participants are used for both control and experimental groups.
Independent Groups Design
Random allocation of sample to either group (quick and easy but participant differences can affect results).
Matched Participant Design
Pairing participants by certain shared characteristics before allocating one to each group (eliminates bias, but is time consuming and risky as a participant could leave).
Repeated Measures Design
Using only one group of participants for both the control and experimental conditions (eliminates differences and has fewer participants, but has order effect).
Order Effect
Change in results due to sequence of 2 tasks. It can be minimised by counterbalancing (dividing group into half and having each had different order of conditions).
Non-experimental Research Designs
Observational, case study, correlational study, longitudinal study and cross sectional study.
(NeRD) Observational
Watching responses of an individual in their natural environment (naturalistic observation) or in a structural environment (controlled observation) without individual knowing (flexible and reliable, but uncontrollable).
(NeRD) Case Study
In depth focus on an individual over a long period of time (uncontrollable with limited conclusions, can’t be generalised and is time consuming).
(NeRD) Correlational Study
Seeks to examine whether a relationship exists between two or more variables without researcher manipulating any of them. The strength is described as strong, moderate, or weak. Direction is positive (when one measure increases, the other one does to) or negative (an increase in one measure causes the decrease of another).
(NeRD) Longitudinal Study
Investigators observe one group of subjects repeatedly over an extended period of time (used in developmental psychology). Provides info to help understand long term changes (useful in examining consistencies, but long and expensive).
(NeRD) Cross-sectional Study
Investigators compare groups of subjects of differing ages who are observed at a single point in time (relatively cheap and easy, but other factors may contribute to results).
Population
Entire group of people belonging to a particular category. Larger group of research interest from which a sample is drawn.
Sample
A group of participants in a research study (often drawn from the population).
Methods of Sampling Participants
Convenience sampling, snowballing, random sampling, and stratified sampling.
Convenience Sampling
Selecting participants based on researchers accessibility or participants availability (quick and easy but biased).
Snowballing
Participants recruit other participants (good way to target a specific group and is relatively easy, but causes bias).
Random Sampling
Ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample (quick and inexpensive, however can be based and may not be representative of the population of interest).
Stratified Sampling
Breaking the population into ‘strata’ by characteristics, then selecting participants from each strata.
Demand Characteristic (effects the experiment)
Clues that are given in the experiment that convey to the participant the purpose of the research.
Minimise the Effects of Extraneous and Confounding Variables
By considering type of sampling procedures, type of experiment, counterbalancing, single and double blind procedures, placebos and standardised instructions and procedures.
Types of Data
Primary, secondary, subjective, objective, qualitative, quantitative, and objective quantitative.
Primary Data
Collected from new research (fieldwork, observation, experimentation, etc.)
Secondary Data
Obtained from primary or secondary sources (peoples work, journals, etc).
Subjective Data
Based on opinion, collected through observations and self reports.
Objective Data
Can be (re)observed and measured.
Qualitative Data
Describes changes in the quality of behaviour, expressed in words.
Quantitative Data
Collected through systematic and controlled procedures and is visually presented in numerical or categorical form.
Objective Quantitative Data
Physical responses such as heart rate, body temperature, galvanic skin response (GSR) and brain waves (EEG).
(OQD) Heart Rate
Measure of alertness. Greater the heart rate, the greater the state of arousal, increased by exercise, fear, medication, etc.
(OQD) Body Temp
Relatively stable except increases due to fever, alcohol, ecstasy, etc.
(OQD) Galvanic Skin Response
Measures change in electrical conductivity of the skin due to moisture. A state of anxiety/excitement results in perspiration. Associated with emotion, but not determined by emotion.
(OQD) Brain Waves
Electrical activity of the brain. Brain waves show different patterns of activity during different states of consciousness.
Methods of Data Collection
Self reporting, naturalistic observation and mixed methods.
Self Reporting
Where individuals are asked to comment on their own thoughts, emotions or beliefs by answering questions, includes interviews (open ended or fixed response), surveys, questionaries, focus groups (group discussion), rating scales and checklist (needs to be administered by pro, it can only provide limited answers, ‘wording affect.’).
Naturalistic Observation
Actively observing in a naturalistic setting and drawing conclusions based on recorded behaviour. Data can be influenced by ‘the observer effect’ (can be controlled and therefore results can be generalised).
Mixed Methods
Combination of qualitative and quantitative data (time consuming but has benefits of both data).
Data Displays
Scatterplots, bar/column graphs, line graphs, histograms, summary (of data) and frequency tables.
Bar/column Graph
Displays discrete data.
Scatterplot Graph
Displays values for typically two variables for a set of data.
Discrete Data
Data that only can take certain values Can be counted and has limited values.
Line Graph
Any single line that connects points that relate two variables.
Histogram
Graph that can be made from data in frequency table. Class intervals are on x axis and frequency on y.
Summary (of data)
Explains the data.
Frequency
How many times the class interval or score happens.
Measures of Central Tendency
Mean, mode and median.
Mean
Average.
Mode
Middle number.
Median
Most common.
Correlation Studies
Strength and direction of the relationship is described using the coefficient of correlation, a number between -1 and +1. Closer to 0 means that the relationship is weak.
Inferential Statistics
Allows researchers to apply findings about the behaviour of a sample to the population they represent. Determines whether results contain uncertainty.
Types of Errors
Systematic, random and personal.
Personal Error
Errors made by the researchers.
Random Error
Errors that account for unpredictable variations or impacts on results.
Systematic Error
Errors that occur in a consistent manner in relation to the true data value.d
Evaluation of Research
Validity (refers to the extent of which an assessment tool actually measures what it is designed to measure) and reliability (refers to the extent to which an assessment tool can produce results consistently - repeatability and reproducibility).
