Biological Psychology

Question 1

What does the left hemisphere do?

Answer 1

It receives information from/controls the right side of the body and the right visual field. It is responsible for word/number recognition, language and comprehension.

Question 2

What does the right hemisphere do?

Answer 2

It receives information from/controls the left side of the body/left visual field. It is responsible for creativity, spacial awareness and recognition of faces, places and objects.

Question 3

What is the function of the frontal lobe?

Answer 3

To process sensory input to visual memories, language and emotion association. It has many dopamine receptors.

Question 4

What is the function of the parietal lobe?

Answer 4

Language processing.

Question 5

What is the function of the occipital lobe?

Answer 5

Visual processing, color differentiation and motion perception.

Question 6

What is the function of the temporal lobe?

Answer 6

Memory making, motivation, planning and attention.

Question 7

What is the function of the cerebellum?

Answer 7

Motor control, regulating fear/pleasure responses and some cognitive functions.

Question 8

Which part of the mid-brain passes on information from the senses?

Answer 8

Thalamus.

Question 9

Which part of the mid-brain connects the two hemispheres and allows them to communicate?

Answer 9

Corpus callosum.

Question 10

Which part of the mid-brain regulates eating, drinking and sex hormones?

Answer 10

Hypothalamus.

Question 11

Which part of the mid-brain is responsible for memory consolidation, navigation and spacial awareness?

Answer 11

Hippocampus.

Question 12

Which part of the mid-brain stores information and is involved in problem solving and decision making?

Answer 12

Cerebral cortex.

Question 13

Which part of the mid-brain has a primary role in emotional responses?

Answer 13

Amygdala.

Question 14

Describe PET scans.

Answer 14

Produces a 3D image of functional processes in the body by injecting a radioactive tracer into the bloodstream. This contains a chemical that the body metabolises to see where there is the most blood flow. Different levels of brain activity are colour-coded - the more activity, the redder the colour.

Question 15

What are the strengths of PET scans?

Answer 15

+ Non invasive way of studying the brain as glucose metabolism is measured from outside the body.

+ Reliable as the scan can be repeated to check that the same areas of the brain are being used when performing an activity, which means it can be checked for consistency.

Question 16

What are the weaknesses of PET scans?

Answer 16

• Interpretation bias from the researcher in deciding the activity level colours to show the result they want.
• Take place in an artificial setting, which means there is low ecological validity and it is not representative of brain activity in normal life.

Question 17

Describe CAT scans.

Answer 17

Produces multiple images inside the body, by taking many X-rays from different angles. It creates a cross-sectional image, which is then generated into a 3D image by digital geometry processing. Used as a diagnostic and therapeutic tool to detect tumours and early brain damage.

Question 18

What are the strengths of CAT scans?

Answer 18

+ Non invasive way of studying the brain as images are taken from outside the body.

+ Useful in detecting and locating tumours which can be helpful for accurate diagnosis and treatment.

Question 19

What are the weaknesses of CAT scans?

Answer 19

• As X-rays are used, this can administer small amounts of radiation. Therefore, CAT scans may not be useful for all people - including pregnant women.

Question 20

Describe fMRI scans.

Answer 20

Use a strong magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed images of blood flow to the brain to detect brain activity by monitoring oxygen. This can help detect signs of brain disease, the presence of disorders and monitor the effects of drugs on the brain.

Question 21

What are the strengths of fMRI scans?

Answer 21

+ Non invasive way of studying the brain as blood flow is monitored from outside the body.

+ No radiation is used like in other scanning techniques, therefore it is less harmful.

+ Very precise, so even minor changes to blood flow can be detected.

Question 22

What are the weaknesses of fMRI scans?

Answer 22

• Takes place in an artificial setting, which lowers ecological validity therefore blood flow to the brain may be different in normal life.
• The use of a magnetic field makes this unsuitable to use for those with pacemakers, as it would cause physical disruption to the heart.

Question 23

Give an example of brain scanning in research.

Answer 23

Montag et al used fMRI scans to show that video gamers had lower activity levels when shown negative pictures in comparison to the control group. Showing that gamers become desensitised and therefore don’t process aggression/violent images in the same way as non-gamers.

Question 24

What was the aim of your classic study?

Answer 24

To show a difference in areas of the brain associated with violence between murderers pleading NGRI and non-murderers.

Question 25

What sample was used in Raine’s study?

Answer 25

41 murderers (39 male and 2 female) pleading NGRI, with a mean age of 31.3 years. Kept medication free two weeks prior to the scan.
41 people in the control group (39 male and 2 female), matched to the experimental group according to age, gender and diagnosis of schizophrenia. With a mean age of 31.7 years. All were medication free and screened beforehand for general heath/medical history.

Question 26

What are the strengths of Raine’s study?

Answer 26

+ Raine used PET scans to measure the activity of key areas of the brain by injecting a glucose tracer into the bloodstream. This is technical equipment which can be used again in the future to test the reliability/consistency of the results - therefore it is highly scientific.

+ The researchers ensured that the participants were kept medication free for 2 weeks prior to the research. This is an advantage as the study will focus on brain activity only and not the impact of medication - which increases validity as it is high in controls, and measures what it is supposed to.

Question 27

What are the weaknesses of Raine’s study?

Answer 27

• Sample of 41 murderers (39m/2f) is not reflective of the prison population as a whole, of female criminals and those who commit offences other than murder. Therefore the results have low generalisability.
• The murderers and non-murderers had to complete a continuous performance task where they had to look at blurred numbers. This does not reflect brain activity when acting aggressively or committing crimes. Therefore it has low ecological validity as it does not reflect brain activity in murderers in everyday life, when committing crimes.

Question 28

Conclude Raine’s study.

Answer 28

Overall it is useful as it allows us to predict who is likely to become violent and aggressive, so that we are able to intervene before this happens. However, this could lead to social control as people could be incorrectly labelled as a potential criminal without committing any crimes.

Question 29

What is the function of the axon terminals?

Answer 29

They store neurotransmitters and also pass nerve impulses from the cell body to the area they control/activate such as a muscle.

Question 30

What is the function of the cell body?

Answer 30

Contains the cell nucleus which holds the neuron’s genetic material. Also contains mitochondria which give the cell energy.

Question 31

What is the function of the dendrites?

Answer 31

To receive messages from other neurons to trigger an action potential.

Question 32

What is the function of an axon?

Answer 32

This is an extension of the cell body which passes electrical impulses towards the axon terminals.

Question 33

What is the function of the myelin sheath?

Answer 33

Fatty deposits that provide an insulating layer and speed up the transmission.

Question 34

What is the function of the nodes of ranvier?

Answer 34

To break along the myelin sheath.

Question 35

Describe the process of neurotransmission.

Answer 35

An action potential/electrical impulse is triggered and travels down the neuron until it reaches the terminal. It excites vesicles containing neurotransmitters such as dopamine. The vesicles then fuse with the cell wall and release neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap. Once they have traveled across the gap, the neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron - which triggers the next action potential. To end the process of synaptic transmission, an enzyme washes away the excess neurotransmitters or they are re-uptaken into the pre-synaptic neuron to be reused.

Question 36

What are neurotransmitters?

Answer 36

Chemical messengers that act between the neurons in the brain, so that it can process thoughts and memories.

Question 37

What is the function of Acetylcholine?

Answer 37

It stimulates muscle contractions and deals with movement. It is also needed for memory, attention and emotions such as anger.

Question 38

What is the function of Noradrenaline?

Answer 38

Associated with mood control, sleeping, dreaming and learning.

Question 39

What is the function of Dopamine?

Answer 39

Related to emotion, cognitive functioning, addiction and control of movement.

Question 40

What is the function of Serotonin?

Answer 40

Deals with mood control, sleep, hunger, regulation of temperature and feeling pain.

Question 41

What is the function of GABA?

Answer 41

Regulates communication between cells in the brain.

Question 42

What are the advantages of neurotransmitters as an explanation of behaviour?

Answer 42

They support the nature debate, meaning they believe conditions can be predicted as they are inborn. For example, neurotransmitters explain behaviours like depression, as being due to a lack of serotonin and schizophrenia being due to dopamine levels.

It is a highly scientific explanation as it is reductionist, which means we are more able to easily establish cause and effect. It explains that behaviour is due to neurotransmitters, such as dopamine - which controls whether we are in a positive or negative mood.

It is highly valid as neurotransmitters can be tested using biological measures such as blood and urine samples. For example, noradrenaline levels can be measured through urine samples to predict the mood someone is likely to display.

Question 43

What are the disadvantages of neurotransmitters as an explanation of behaviour?

Answer 43

This explanation can lead to issues with social control, meaning we may implement strategies to control negative behaviours due to testing, before individuals even display them. For example, someone may be labelled as having depression due to activity levels in the brain, before they have shown any symptoms of this.

It is a reductionist explanation of behaviour as it ignores other key influences such as upbringing - focusing solely on nature and dismissing the nurture debate. It is incomplete as it ignores everyday causes of behaviours such as depression and schizophrenia, like environmental factors including social and financial concerns.

Question 44

Give some AO1 points on the role of drugs in synaptic transmission as an explanation of addictive behaviour.

Answer 44

Drugs like cocaine prevent neurotransmitters such as dopamine from being re-uptaken - which causes high activity in the reward system (pleasant and rewarding feelings).

Drugs like heroin exploit the reward system, increasing dopamine and then causing withdrawal - which leads to the down regulation of dopamine production and results in addiction.

Drugs can cause addiction by numbing pain through stimulating endorphins and increasing dopamine, which causes euphoria.

Question 45

Give some AO3 points on the role of drugs in synaptic transmission as an explanation of addictive behaviour.

Answer 45

+ Scientific explanation of addiction as we can compare the brain activity of drug users/non-drug users to highlight areas of the reward system that are active when taking drugs = scientific credibility.

+ Simplistic and reductionist explanation that pinpoints addiction as being down to neurotransmission - ignoring social factors such as peer pressure, which can allow us to predict who may become addicted.

• Doesn’t consider individual differences as not all drug users become addicted/feel the need to keep taking drugs to get ‘high’. Ignores reasons such as work stress, finance difficulties and mental state that may explain why some choose to occasionally take drugs.

Conclusion: Useful as we can develop drug therapies that are less addictive (eg. methadone) that work in a similar way, but treat addiction. However, it has issues with social control as it could lead to all users being labelled as drug addicts.

Question 46

Evolutionary theory of aggression AO1.

Answer 46

• Survival of the fittest: aggression has an adaptive function to enable males to win a mate and demonstrate good genetics to pass on to offspring.
• Females are less physically aggressive (more verbally) as they nurture offspring and there is no evolutionary advantage to being aggressive for them.
• We inherit a genetic blueprint from parents, which include genetics linked to aggression - as they allow us to adapt and survive.
• Males are more aggressive to warn off other males to ensure they don’t mate with their partners - which could lead into their own genetics not being furthered.

Question 47

Evolutionary theory of aggression AO3.

Answer 47

• Not falsifiable: hard to prove the theory is untrue by showing that aggression hasn’t evolved as an adaptive function as it happened across millions of years = less scientific.

+ Mazur showed that males engage in more inter-male fighting around puberty as this is the time when males are looking to select a mate and need to prove their strength to the females.

• Doesn’t account for individual differences in aggression such as personality, environment and role models - therefore evolutionary theory is an incomplete explanation as it ignores the nurture debate.

+ Daly showed that males engage in domestic abuse to dissuade partners from infidelity and stop the investment of another’s genetic material.

Question 48

How is the pre-frontal cortex linked to aggression?

Answer 48

It is involved in social interaction, so damage to this area can lead to problems with impulsivity, anger management and irritability.

Question 49

How is the periaqueductal grey matter linked to aggression?

Answer 49

This area links the pre-frontal cortex to the amygdala and hypothalamus. It deals with responses such as threat and pain, and also allows the pre-frontal cortex to moderate aggression.

Question 50

How is the amygdala linked to aggression?

Answer 50

It is responsible for controlling emotional responses. The left is inhibitory, whilst the right is excitatory and aggression is caused if balance is not maintained.

Question 51

How is the hypothalamus linked to aggression?

Answer 51

This regulates body temperature, as well hormones such as testosterone - which is linked to aggression. Damage to this area can result in too much testosterone production, causing aggression.

Question 52

What supporting evidence is there for brain structure and functioning as an explanation of aggression?

Answer 52

Pre-frontal cortex: The case study of Phineas Gage found that there was a change in his personality as a result of damage to the pre-frontal cortex he suffered following an accident where a metal pole was lodged through his skull.

Amygdala: Raine’s study into the brain activity of murderers and non-murderers found that there was asymmetrical functioning in the amygdala of murderers compared to non-murderers.

Question 53

What issues and debates are there, regarding brain structure and functioning as an explanation of aggression?

Answer 53

Hypothalamus: Ignores individual differences in testosterone production - such as the fact not all individuals will produce the same amount, males produce more - especially those with the XYY chromosome. And individuals with higher levels of testosterone/damage to this area won’t always act out aggressively.

P.A.Grey Matter: Reductionist as it only considers the nature debate, saying that aggression is due to our biology. It ignores nurture factors such as our upbringing and environment.

Question 54

Hormones as an explanation of aggression AO1.

Answer 54

Testosterone is a male hormone and an androgen, which means it develops and maintains male characteristics.

Testosterone affects prenatal brain development in males, which leads to an increase in competitive aggression.

After birth, testosterone in males is produced in the testes.

High levels of testosterone, as well as low levels of cortisol - which is the stress hormone - can result in aggressive behaviour.

Question 55

Hormones as an explanation of aggression AO3.

Answer 55

+ Dabbs found that males prisoners who committed violent crimes had high levels of testosterone, showing that testosterone is linked to aggression.

• Reductionist, as it explains behaviours such as aggression as a result of biology and nature alone - ignoring nurture factors such as role models, upbringing and environment = incomplete.

+ Hawke found that violent sex offenders displayed less aggression and reduced sexual drive following castration. Showing that less testosterone = less aggression.

• The relationship between testosterone and aggression may be reciprocal - which causes the other? Therefore it is hard to establish cause and effect between the two, which gives the theory low validity.

Question 56

Key Question AO1.

Answer 56

My key question for biological psychology is ‘How can biology be used to explain aggression in sports players?’.

Aggression can be seen as an excessive emotional response - which would be an inappropriate way to deal with situations that may occur during a sporting event, causing the referee to intervene.

In football it has been found that some players will go as far as biting others to show their dominance on the pitch - so aggression is used as a way to display they are better players, that the opposition should fear.

Aggression in sports players is an issue as many people, including younger people, watch sports and may idolise sports players as role models. Therefore, they may observe and imitate their aggression so it is important that we control aggression within sports players, to prevent others from copying this behaviour.

Question 57

Key Question AO2.

Answer 57

Testosterone: high levels + low cortisol levels = aggression. Male hormone linked to competitive aggression, therefore sports players may be more aggressive if they have lots of testosterone.

Evolution: sports players may have inherited the genetic blueprint for aggression, so are aggressive to show dominance over other males on the pitch - to show survival of the fittest.

Pre-frontal cortex: linked to empathy and impulsivity, so damage to this area means sportsmen may be aggressive because they act on impulse, rather than thinking about consequences. Damage may be caused by contact sports, such as headers in football.

Amygdala: sports players may have lower functioning in the left amygdala that inhibits aggression, and higher functioning in the right which excites aggression. So the left may not inhibit aggression when playing sports.

Question 58

Key Question AO3.

Answer 58

• Testosterone: limited theory of aggression amongst sports players as the relationship between aggression and testosterone is reciprocal and so it is difficult to establish cause and effect.

+ Evolution: supported by Mazur who found that inter-male fighting peaks during puberty, in teen years/early 20s as this is likely to be the time when males are looking for a partner. This tends to be the age of sports players, and so may explain their aggression.

• Pre-frontal cortex: may be a limited explanation as opposing theories come from nurture and environmental factors. For example, SLT would explain aggression in sports players is observed and imitated from their role models, such as parents or other sportsmen they idolise.

+ Amygdala: supported by Raine who found that NGRI murderers had asymmetrical functioning of the amygdala compared to non-murderers. Shows asymmetrical amygdala is linked to aggression, and could explain this type of behaviour in sports players.

Question 59

Key Question Conclusion.

Answer 59

Biological explanations of why sports players are aggressive are useful as they have good practical application. Sports clubs can monitor testosterone levels and use brain scanning to check for brain damage in players, to intervene early and prevent aggression on the pitch. However, this could lead to players being removed from sports teams and being labelled as aggressive, before they have displayed any signs of this - which has issues with social control.

Question 60

Suggest two advantages of twin studies.

Answer 60

They are useful as they tell us the extent to which nature/nurture affects behaviours and they allow us to predict the cause of behaviours, as either due to biology or our environment.

They are high in controls as twins share 100% of the same environment - both pre and post-natal, which highers validity as we can then measure what we claim (behaviours such as aggression).

Question 61

Suggest two disadvantages of twin studies.

Answer 61

They are low in generalisability - as findings can only be applied to twins and not a wider population, as twins may be treated differently to other children by family members - for example they may lose individuality.

It is hard to establish cause and effect between nature and nurture. There are still differences in the environment for twins, for example they may have different friends, therefore findings are low in validity.

Question 62

What are monozygotic twins?

Answer 62

Identical twins who share 100% of the same genes and 100% the same environment.

Question 63

What are dizygotic twins?

Answer 63

Non-identical twins, also known as fraternal twins, who share 50% of the same genes and 100% of the same environment.

Question 64

What is the concordance rate?

Answer 64

The concordance rate is the extent to which behaviour is the same between twins.

Question 65

What was the aim of your contemporary study?

Answer 65

The aim of Brendgen’s study was to investigate social and physical aggression in twins.

Question 66

What sample was used in Brendgen’s study?

Answer 66

Brendgen used 234 pairs of twins, from 409 classrooms, recruited from the Quebec Newborn Twin Study.

Question 67

What are the strengths of Brendgen’s study?

Answer 67

Teachers and peers rated the social and physical aggression of the class in the spring term, to ensure the twins were well-known by those rating them. They did this using photos or the PSBS - Preschool Social Behaviour Scale. = high validity, measures what it claims.

The results found that there was a 94% agreement between zygosity based on physical likeness and gene markers, showing reliability for testing genetic links to aggression. = high reliability, quantitative data.

Question 68

What are the weaknesses of Brendgen’s study?

Answer 68

The sample consisted of 234 pairs of twins, from 409 classrooms, recruited from the Quebec Newborn Twin Study. This isn’t representative of social and physical aggression in a wider population, as findings can’t be generalised to other children, who have different childhood experiences to twins.

The scores given by teachers for each statement that linked to aggression were based on a 3-point scale: 0=never, 1=sometimes and 2=often. This makes the study low in validity, as the scale is subjective and may result in bias. For example, what one teacher may consider aggressive, another may not.

Question 69

What are some strengths of adoption studies?

Answer 69

• They help us to understand the effect of biology and environment and predict the causes of behaviour.
• They often have large samples, meaning lots of data can be generated at once and can be checked for reliability to see if nature or nurture causes behaviour.

Question 70

What are some weaknesses of adoption studies?

Answer 70

• Adopted children have had abnormal experiences, so findings have low generalisability as the sample is not representative.
• Ignores individual differences and points only to either nature or nurture as the cause of behaviour, which is reductionist.

Question 71

What was the aim of Leve’s adoption study?

Answer 71

To investigate the interaction between genes and environment on a child’s behaviour, such as aggression.

Question 72

Give the weaknesses of Leve’s study.

Answer 72

Used a total of 360 sets of adoptive triads, recruited from adoption agencies in 10 US states. = Low generalisability, only considers adoptive triads from specific states in the US - findings about the effect of nature/nurture on behaviours such as aggression cannot be applied to children from other countries.

Uses interviews and questionnaires in person and over the phone as part of its procedure. Adoptive and biological parents are asked questions based on the personality and behaviour of the child. = Social desirability, may not wish to admit to bad behaviour of their child - low reliability.

Question 73

Give the strengths of Leve’s study.

Answer 73

Ensured that all children participating were adopted within 3 months of birth, therefore little time was spent with the birth parents. = High controls, psychologists can be more sure that behaviours such as aggression have been learnt from the adoptive parents - more valid and accurate.

Collected salivary cortisol from birth parents, adoptive parents and the child. DNA was also taken from all the participants. = data collection method is objective and less open to researcher bias/interpretation - more scientific.

Question 74

Give a conclusion for Leve’s study.

Answer 74

It has good practical application as it means we can try and intervene to stop children’s aggression worsening within families that display anti-social behaviour, and we can help to treat mothers with depression to enable them to cope better.
However, it is socially sensitive as it puts the blame for aggressive behaviour in children on the mothers.

Question 75

How can unconscious instincts explain aggression?

Answer 75

Eros is the life instinct and Thanatos is the death instinct. Aggression can occur if a person’s Thanatos is stronger than their Eros, as they may act in a self-destructive and aggressive manner. This theory is high in validity as it considers individual differences in aggression, explaining why some people may be more aggressive than others.

Question 76

How can personality explain aggression?

Answer 76

Freud suggested our personality consists of three parts - the ID which is the pleasure principle, the Ego which is the reality principle and the Superego which is the morality principle. Aggression can be caused by a dominant ID and under-developed superego and ego - as the ID may get pleasure from acting aggressively. This theory is reductionist as it focuses on the structure of personality as a cause of aggression and ignores concepts such as learning aggression via observation and imitation, which makes the theory an incomplete explanation.

Question 77

How else does Freud’s psychodynamic theory explain aggression?

Answer 77

Aggression may be caused by using defense mechanisms like displacement, where a person may take out their anger and frustration onto a smaller, less threatening target. This has good practical application as aggression could be reduced by implementing productive defense mechanisms such as sublimation - directing aggression into a sport, rather than towards a person.

Repressed memories, thoughts and feelings can lead to aggression, although the individual may be unaware of the cause of their aggression. However, this is a weakness as the unconscious mind is not falsifiable as we cannot prove the theory to be incorrect as it cannot be seen on brain scans. Therefore it has less scientific credibility as it can’t be scientifically proven.