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biological molecules Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a monomer

A

smaller units which can create larger molecules

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2
Q

what is a polymer

A

molecules made from a large number of repeated monomers joined together

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3
Q

what is a saccharide

A

sugar

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4
Q

3 examples of monomers

A

nucleotide, amino acid and monosaccharides

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5
Q

3 examples of polymers

A

dna, protein and starch

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6
Q

what is condensation

A

a reaction that joins two molecules together with a chemical bond involving the elimination of a molecule of water

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7
Q

what is hydrolysis

A

a reaction that breaks down a chemical bond between two molecules and involves the use of water molecules

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8
Q

how are biological polymers formed

A

from their monomers by condensation

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9
Q

how are biological monomers formed

A

broken down from their polymers by hydrolysis

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10
Q

what is a unit of carbohydrates called

A

saccharides

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11
Q

what is a monosaccharide

A

monomers from which larger
carbohydrates are made

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12
Q

what group is sugar a part of

A

carbohydrates (containing C, H, O)

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13
Q

3 examples of monosaccharides

A

glucose, fructose and galactose

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14
Q

3 examples of disaccharides

A

sucrose, maltose and lactose

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15
Q

3 examples of polysaccharides

A

starch, cellulose and glycogen

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16
Q

how is a glycosidic bond formed

A

a condensation reaction between two monosaccharides

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17
Q

how are disaccharides formed

A

condensation of two monosaccharides

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18
Q

formula for alpha glucose

A

C6H12O6

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19
Q

draw alpha glucose

A

search on google

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20
Q

draw beta glucose

A

search on google

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21
Q

what is an isomer

A

same molecular formula, different structure

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22
Q

what are the two isomers for glucose

A

a- glucose and b-glucose

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23
Q

what is the disaccharide maltose formed by

A

a- glucose + a- glucose

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24
Q

what is the disaccharide sucrose formed by

A

glucose + fructose

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25
Q

what is the disaccharide lactose formed by

A

glucose + galactose

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26
Q

how are polysaccharides formed

A

condensation reaction between many glucose monomers

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27
Q

notes on glycogen

A

found in animals, made from a- glucose, highly branched and store of glucose

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28
Q

notes on starch

A

found in plants, made from a- glucose, highly branched and store of glucose

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29
Q

notes on cellulose

A

found in plants, made form b- glucose, parallel long single chains, hydrogen bond cross linkages, used for cell wall strength

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30
Q

what bond does carbohydrates form

A

glycosidic

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31
Q

what bond does proteins form

A

peptide

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32
Q

what bond does lipids form

A

ester

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33
Q

what bond does nucleic acid form

A

phosphodiester

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34
Q

what makes a sugar ‘reducing’

A

can donate electrons

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35
Q

what makes a sugar ‘non reducing’

A

gains electrons (cannot donates electrons, therefore cannot be oxidised)

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36
Q

how do you find out the chemical formula of a disaccharide

A

add all the carbons, hydrogens and
oxygens in both monomers then subtract 2 H and 1 O (for the water molecule lost)

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37
Q

why does the liver and muscle cells have a high number of glycogen

A

higher cellular respiration rate in these cells

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38
Q

bond between glycogen monomers

A

1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds

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39
Q

properties of glycogen

A

helical shape, highly branched, made up of lots of glucose, large molecules

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40
Q

how does glycogen’s helical shape adapt it for it’s function

A

compact so lots of energy can be stored in small areas

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41
Q

how does glycogen being highly branched adapt it for it’s function

A

increases surface area for enzymes to act on making hydrolysis faster

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42
Q

how does glycogen being made up of lots of glucose adapt it for it’s function

A

glucose molecules can be obtained through hydrolysis and can be used in respiration

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43
Q

how does glycogen being made of large molecules help adapt it for its functions

A

its insoluable & unable to leave cell freely, this means they won’t be lost from the cell & also won’t effect water potential

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44
Q

is starch less dense and more soluble than glycogen, what does it mean

A

glycogen is less dense, more soluble, broken down rapidly, indicating higher metabolic requirements of animals compared with plants

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45
Q

bond between starch monomers

A

1-4 glycosidic bond in amylose, 1-4 and 1-6 in amylopectin

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46
Q

properties of starch

A

helical shape, can be branched or unbranched, insoluble, made of lots of glucose, large molecues

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47
Q

how does starch’s helical shape adapt it for its function

A

compact, lots of glucose can be stored in a small space

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48
Q

how does starch being insoluble adapt it for its function

A

doesn’t affect water potential, so water isn’t drawn in by osmosis, also can’t leave cell

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49
Q

how does starch being made of lots of glucose adapt it for its function

A

glucose molecules can be obtained through hydrolysis and can be used in respiration

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50
Q

how does starch having large molecules adapt it for its function

A

insoluble, and unable to leave the cell freely, can’t be lost from cell

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51
Q

properties of cellulose

A

straight chains and microfibrils

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52
Q

how does cellulose having straight chains adapt it for its function

A

chains are close together allowing hydrogen bonds to form between the -OH groups resulting in collective strength

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53
Q

how does cellulose having microfibrils adapt for its function

A

chains of cellulose are grouped into microfibrils and fibres for more strength

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54
Q

how do cellulose molecules have to be arranged in order to join eachother

A

alternate molecules need to be inverted due to beta glucose having opposite hydroxyl groups

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55
Q

what bond is found between chains in cellulose

A

hydrogen

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56
Q

how to test for starch

A

add food sample in test tube with iodine, if present it goes from orange/yellow to blue black

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57
Q

how to test for a reducing sugar

A

equal volumes of food sample and benedicts reagent and heat, if a reducing sugar is present it will go from blue to orange/red (it can go from blue, green, yellow, orange or red depending on how much is present)

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58
Q

how to test for non reducing sugars

A

do benedicts test, if no colour change, get new sample of non reducing sugar, add HCL then heat, then neutralise with alkali sodium hydrogencarbonate, repeat benedicts when neutral, if present will turn red/brown

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59
Q

what function do lipids serve

A

storage of energy

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60
Q

why are lipids insoluble in water

A

b/c they’re non polar so don’t attract water molecules but dissolve in alcohol

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61
Q

what is a polar molecule

A

slight positive at one end, slight negative at the other end

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62
Q

draw glycerol

A

.
H
|
H - C - OH
|
H - C - OH
|
H - C - OH
|
H

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63
Q

draw a fatty acid

A

.
O
||
HO - C - R

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64
Q

what are triglycerides

A

condensation w/ 1 glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acids
3 water molecules eliminted in the process
fatty acids have general formula RCOOH
ester bonds between fatty acid & glycerol

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65
Q

what is esterfication

A

the forming of an ester bond, ester bonds include O&C between them

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66
Q

draw the ester bond in triglycerides

A

O
||
O - C

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67
Q

what is a saturated fatty acid

A

all carbon atoms are joined by single bonds

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68
Q

what is an unsaturated acid

A

atleast one double bond between carbon atoms

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69
Q

what does hydrophilic mean

A

interacts with water

70
Q

what are phospholipids made of

A

glycerol, 2 fatty acid chains, phosphate (the head is hydrophilic while the tail is hydrophobic)

71
Q

what’s are the properties of triglycerides

A

lots of carbon hydrogen bonds
low mass to energy ratio
large non polar molecules
high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms

72
Q

explain why triglycerides have lots of carbon hydrogen bonds

A

these bonds have high ratio of energy storing bonds so lots of energy is released when broken down

73
Q

why do triglycerides have low mass to energy ratio

A

lots of energy can be stored in a small molecule

74
Q

why are triglycerides large non polar molecules

A

so they’re insoluble in water & does not affect water potential of cells
also can’t escape cell

75
Q

explain why triglycerides have a high ratio of hydrogen oxygen atoms

A

release water when oxidised so provides water

76
Q

how is the structure of phospholipids related to it’s properties

A

polar molecules
in aqueous environment they form bilayer –> water soluble substances can’t easily pass membrane
hydrophilic heads attracted to water inside & outside of cell so point outwards
hydrophobic tails point away from water

77
Q

how do you test for lipids

A

add ethanol and water to food sample
then shake
if lipid is present it will turn cloudy white emulsion

78
Q

how does an unsaturated fatty acid affect its hydrocarbon tail

A

it makes it kink (bend slightly) they can’t pack together tightly
so they’re not as straight as saturated fatty acids

79
Q

why are lipids not considered polymers

A

they are formed from fatty acids and a glycerol molecule not repeating units of a single monomer

80
Q

draw an amino acid

A

.
R
|
H(little 2)N – C – COOH
|
H

81
Q

what varies the 20 different amino acids

A

the R chain

82
Q

when do peptides form

A

when the carboxyl group on one amino acid reacts w/ the amine group on another
this forms peptide & water due to condensation

83
Q

how do amino acids form peptides

A

carboxyl group reacts w/ amine group
one free amine group at one end and a free carboxyl at the other

84
Q

how do you test for proteins

A

equal volume of food sample & biuret solution
shake gently
if protein present, goes from blue to lilac

85
Q

what is the primary structure of proteins

A

sequence of amino acids that are joined w/ a peptide bond
sequence determines overall shape of protein
if the sequence is different, overall shape and function is change

86
Q

what is the secondary structure of proteins

A

a - helix or b - pleated sheet can be formed
hydrogen bonds between amino group and carboxyl group of two different amino acids

87
Q

what is the tertiary structure of proteins

A

3d arrangement
formed by disulfide bridges, ionic and hydrogen bonds
this allows it to be recognised by other molecules

88
Q

what is the quaternary structure of proteins

A

contains more than one polypeptide chain
formed by interaction between different polypeptides & is held together by disulfide bonds

89
Q

description of hydrogen bond in proteins

A

form secondary structure
between NH groups of one amino acid & C=O group of other
lots in a protein but easily broken

90
Q

description of disulfide bridge in proteins

A

bond different polypeptide chains together forming quaternary structure
very strong, not easily broken

91
Q

description of ionic bond in proteins

A

formed between carboxyl & amino groups that aren’t involved in forming peptide bonds
weaker than disulfide bonds
easily broken by change in ph

92
Q

description of peptide bond in proteins

A

bond between amino acids in a chain formed by condensation reaction, when amine group reacts w/ carboxyl group
water is eliminated during reaction

93
Q

what is formed when enzymes and substrates bind together

A

enzyme substrate complex, which turns into an enzyme product complex

94
Q

how does the induced fit model work

A

when a substrate binds to active site, the active site changes shape slightly

95
Q

why can different catalysts be used for the same reaction

A

shape of active site is the same or different active sites that attach to different parts of a substrate

96
Q

what is it called when the active site has the same shape as the substrate

A

the active site is complimentary to the substrate

97
Q

what is the effect of ph on enzymes if too high or low

A

the ionic bonds holding the
enzymes, tertiary structure
together break

98
Q

draw a peptide bond

A

.
O
||
C – N
|
H

99
Q

what is an inhibitor

A

substance that slows down the activity of an
enzyme
some are reversible others are non-reversible.

100
Q

how do competitive inhibitors work

A

has a similar shape to substrate
this means it can fit into the active site of an enzyme
prevents substrate from binding to active site
so enzyme-substrate complexes are unable to form

101
Q

how do non competitive inhibitors work

A

non-competitive inhibitor binds to a different part of the enzyme and changes its shape
substrate can’t bind

102
Q

non competitive inhibitors never allow enzyme substrate complex to do what

A

reach it’s max

103
Q

what bond does reversible inhibitation form with enzymes

A

weak hydrogen bonds

104
Q

what bond does non reversible inhibitation form with enzymes

A

strong covalent bonds

105
Q

what site do non competitive inhibitors bind to

A

allosteric site

106
Q

what is dna

A

polymer
deoxyribonucleic acid
holds genetic information

107
Q

what is rna

A

polymer
ribonucleic acid
transfers genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes

108
Q

what is the structure of a nucleotide

A

phosphate (circle), pentose (pentagon), nitogen containing organic base (rectangle)

109
Q

what are ribosomes formed by

A

rna and protein

110
Q

what sugar does dna contain

A

deoxyribose

111
Q

what sugar does rna contain

A

ribose

112
Q

what are dna’s bases

A

adenine & thymine
guanine & cytosine

113
Q

what are rna’s bases

A

adenine & uracil
guanine & cytosine

114
Q

what element do all bases in dna and rna contain

A

nitrogen

115
Q

what sugar do dna & rna both contain

A

pentose

116
Q

how is a phosphodiester bond formed between two nucleotides

A

condensation reaction, between phosphate and deoxyribose

117
Q

what is the structure of dna

A

sugar phosphate backbone
long
helical shape
specific sequence of bases
double helix
hydrogen bonds at bases

118
Q

how does the sugar phosphate backbone support dna’s function

A

provides strength and stability

119
Q

how does being long and having a helical shape support dna’s function

A

compact
stores lot of info in a small space

120
Q

how does having specific sequence of bases support dna’s function

A

allows info to be stored

121
Q

how does having a double helix support dna’s function

A

strands can act as templates

122
Q

how does hydrogen bonds between bases support dna’s function

A

double strands can be easily separaed for replication

123
Q

what are pyrimidines

A

smaller bases containing single carbon ring structures

124
Q

example of pyrimidines

A

thymine, uracil, cytosine

125
Q

what are purines

A

larger bases containing double carbon ring structures

126
Q

examples of purines

A

adenine, guanine

127
Q

how to calculate percentage of bases in dna

A

complimentary bases have same %
subtract their total from 100
divide this by 2
this is percentage for other 2 bases

128
Q

differences between dna and rna

A

dna:
long, double stand helix, thymine
rna: s
short single chain, uracil

129
Q

what bond is between complimentary dna bases

A

hydrogen

130
Q

what carbons are the phosphodiester bonds between

A

3rd carbon and 5th carbon

131
Q

what is the process of dna replication/ semi conservative replication

A

enzyme dna helicase unwinds double helix, breaks down hydrogen bonds
both strands act as templates
nucleotides line up in complimentary pairs
dna polymerase joins nucleotides together forming phosphodiester bonds
hydrogen bonds between bases reform
each new dna molecule has one original strand and one new strand

132
Q

what is semi conservative replication and what does it ensure

A

one strand from template molecule
one strand newly synthesised
ensures new dna is accurate and there is genetic continuity between generations of cells

133
Q

what direction can polymerase add bases from

A

5’ (5 prime end) to 3’ (3 prime end)

134
Q

what is the name of the fragment that polymerase makes on the lagging strand

A

okazaki fragment

135
Q

what is the role of dna helicase

A

breaks weak hydrogen bonds and unwinds dna

136
Q

what is the role of dna polymerase

A

catalyses the condensation reaction inwhich nucleotides bond together forming phosphodiester bonds

137
Q

what scientists supported the semi conservative dna replication

A

watson and crick

138
Q

what experiment proved semi conservative replication

A

scientists grew bacteria in N15 (dense isotope)
bases contain nitrogen so it becomes incorporated in dna
dna strand is dense and towards bottom
then it’s moved to N14 (less dense isotope)
dna copies, 1 strand is N14, other is N15
due to being a mix its in the middle of tube
bacteria divides again in N14
so N14&15 dna stays in middle but N14 dna is near the top in same test tube

139
Q

draw out the semi conservative dna experiment

A

test tube 1: gen 0 N15 dna near bottom
test tube 2: gen 1 N15&14 dna in middle
test tube 3: gen 2 N15&14 dna in middle, N14 dna at top

140
Q

what is atp

A

nucleotide derivative
adenosine triphosphate
provides an immediate energy source for cells

141
Q

what is atp formed with

A

adenine, ribose and 3 phosphate groups

142
Q

draw atp

A

phosphate (3 circles), ribose (pentagon), adenine (rectangle)

143
Q

what happens when atp is broken down

A

broken down by hydrolysis
into adp and a phosphate group
catalysed by enzyme atp hydrolase

144
Q

atp being broken down, word equation

A

atp + h2o –> adp + Pi + energy

145
Q

what does Pi mean

A

inorganic phosphate

146
Q

when is atp resynthesised

A

during photosynthesis and respiration

147
Q

how is atp resynthesised

A

condensation reaction catalysed by atp synthase
adp and phosphate group join to form atp and water

148
Q

atp resynthesised word equation

A

adp + Pi –> atp + h2o

149
Q

what are the products of hydrolysis of atp used for

A

Pi made in this reaction can phosphorylate other compounds
this makes compounds more reactive
energy is released
this can be used for essential processes in the organism

150
Q

why is atp useful as an immediate energy source

A

releases smal manageable amounts of energy so little is lost as heat
energy released instantaneously
can be rapidly synthesised
unable to leave cells

151
Q

why do organisms need to make lots of atp

A

b/c can’t be stored, only lasts a couple of seconds
only small amounts of energy is released at a time

152
Q

where do inorganic ions occur

A

solution of cytoplasm or body fluids of organisms
some in high concentration, others in very low

153
Q

how are inorganic ions specific

A

each type of ion has a specific role, depending on its properties

154
Q

examples of inorganic ions

A

hydrogen ion, sodium ion, iron ion and phosphate ion

155
Q

what is the role of the inorganic hydrogen ion

A

determines ph of a substance

156
Q

explain how the hydrogen ion works

A

presence of hydrogen ions lower ph
can affect enzyme function as it can change tertiary structure of enzyme and denature it

157
Q

what is the role of the inorganic iron ion

A

component of haemoglobin

158
Q

explain how the iron ion works

A

charged so binds w/ oxygen forming oxyhaemoglobin
oxygen is then transported

159
Q

what is the role of the inorganic sodium ions

A

co transport of glucose and amino acids

160
Q

explain how the sodium ion works

A

sodium ion moved out of cell by active transport which creates sodium concentration gradient
this affects water potential

161
Q

what is the role of the inorganic phosphate ion

A

component of dna and atp

162
Q

explain how the phosphate ion works

A

component of nucleotides
in dna found as backbone
used to make atp in condensation of adp

163
Q

what bond does water have

A

covalent bond

164
Q

what does specific heat capacity mean

A

amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1*c

165
Q

what are the properties of water

A

its a metabolite
has high specific heat capacity
dipolar
large latent heat of vaporisation
strong cohesion between water molecules
its a solvent
density

166
Q

what does water being a metabolite mean

A

involved w/ condensation & hydrolysis reactions like photosynthesis and respiration

167
Q

what does ice act as

A

an insulator

168
Q

what does water having a high heat capacity mean

A

buffers changes in temperature
can gain lots of energy without changing temperature

169
Q

what does it mean if water is dipolar

A

acts as good solvent

170
Q

what does it mean if water have a large latent heat of vaporisation

A

cooling effect with little evaporative loss

171
Q

what does it mean if water has strong cohesion

A

cohesion between molecules
water can be drawn up vessel in narrow columns e.g transport in plants
produces surface tension

biology (4 decks)

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