Biological Molecules Flashcards
What is a molecule
A molecule is made up of two or more of the same or different elements chemically bonded together
What are biological molecules
Compounds that living organisms are made up of
Examples of Biological molecules
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Nucleic acids
Biological molecules are… (1)
Large and complex macromolecules made up of many atoms bonded together
Many but not all are polymers
Biological molecules are… (2)
Organic- carbon forms main structural part of each biological molecule
- all contain C-C or C-H bonds
What is the opposite of organic and why
Inorganic- do not contain C-C or C-H bonds
Examples of inorganic biological molecules
C02
CaCO3
Biological molecules are… (3)
Made up of maximum of 6 elements
- carbon
-hydrogen
-nitrogen - oxygen
-phosphorus - sulphur
What elements can be found in the macromolecule carbohydrate
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
What elements can be found in the macromolecule lipids
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
What elements can be found in the macromolecule proteins
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulphur
What elements can be found in the macromolecule nucleic acids
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
What are most of the atoms in biological molecules and how are they bonded together?
Most atoms= non-metals, are held together by covalent bonds through sharing electrons
Define monomer
Small units which are linked together to form larger molecules e g. monosaccharides
Define polymer
Long chain molecules made up of monomers which are linked together in a repeating pattern
Give examples of polymers
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Nucleic acids
Give example of what’s not a polymer
Lipids
Why are polymers great biological molecules
Can easily be broken down into monomers when necessary and join back together to make polymers
Explain how monomers are turned into polymers
Monomers are joined together in a condensation reaction where water is released to make polymers
What is dehydration synthesis also known as
Condensation reaction
What is also known as a condensation reaction
Dehydration synthesis
How are polymers broken down to make monomers
Polymers are broken down to make monomers by addition of water in Hydrolysis reaction
What is an ion
Atom that has lost or gained electron
Benefits of inorganic ions
Essential for functioning of living organisms e.g. communication between cells and controlling the movement of water in and out of cells and tissues
What charge do metals have and what are the known as?
- Positive
- known as cations
Why are metals positively charged
Because they lose electrons
What charge do non metals have and what are they known as?
-negative
-anions
Why are non metals negatively charged
Because they gain electrons
Name all cations that are used within living organisms
Calcium, sodium, potassium, hydrogen, ammonium
The cation calcium is useful in the human body because?
Ca2+ :
-transmission of nerve impulses across synapses
-Muscle contraction
-Cofactor in blood clotting
-Bone and tooth enamel structure (Calcium Phosphate)
The cation Sodium is useful in the human body because?
Na+ =
-nerve impulse transmission
- reabsorption of water in kidneys
- involved in co-transport
The cation potassium is useful in the human body because?
K+ =
-nerve impulse transmission
-water reabsorption in the nephron
- control of stomatal opening
The cation hydrogen is useful for the human body because?
H+ =
-catalysis of reactions
-ph determination
-involved in chemiosmosis
-formation of H bonds
-ATP formation
-control of blood pH + CO2 transport
The cation ammonium is useful for the human body because?
NH4 + =
- production of nitrate ions by bacteria from ammonium ions
- involved in nitrogen cycle
-involved in the deamination of proteins
The anion nitrate is useful for the human body and plants because?
NO3 minus = nitrogen supply to plants for amino acids and protein formations
The anion hydrogen carbonate is useful for the human body because?
HCO3 minus =
-maintains blood pH
-involved in CO2 transport in blood
The anion chloride is useful for the human body because?
Cl- =
-to balance positive charge of sodium and potassium ions in cells by providing negative charge
-maintains the pH balance in RBCs during CO2 transport
The anion phosphate is useful for the human body because?
PO4 3- =
-cell membrane formations from phospholipids
-Nucleic acids and atp formations
-bone formation
-part of calcium phosphate in bones + tooth structure
The anion hydroxide is useful for the human body because?
OH- =
-catalysis of reactions
-ph determination
-involved in bonding between biochemical molecules
What is an ionic compound
- anion + cation are joined together= an ionic compound
What can ions join to make
Many cations + anions can join together to make a giant ionic lattice
What is an example of a biologically important ionic compound
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Give 3 properties of ionic compounds
-conducts electricity when molten/in aqueous solution
- strong electrostatic force of attraction
- high melting/boiling point
What is a monomer
Small units which can be linked together to form larger molecules. e.g. monosaccharides
What is a polymer
long chain molecules -made up of monomers bonded together in a repeating pattern
What is the name of the reaction in which monomers are joined together
Dehydration synthesis or Condensation reaction- water is released
What is the name of the type of reaction in which monomers are separated apart
Hydrolysis and it requires water
Human pancreatic lipase breaks the bonds between fatty acids and glycerol. What is the name given to this reaction
Hydrolysis
Plant seedlings were grown in a solution that contained various dissolved ions.
The function of the ion is that it supplies elements that form part of the structure of amino acids and nucleotides, what is the name of this ion
Nitrates
N03, minus
Plant seedlings were grown in a solution that contained various dissolved ions. The function of the ion is that it forms part of the structure of DNA and phospholipids, what is the name this ion
Phosphate
PO4, 3 minus
Why is water important
Because of its unique life-supporting properties that are caused by hydrogen bonding
Why do living organisms need water
-Aquatic organisms- obtain oxygen from water
-Maintain homeostasis when excreting- it keeps us hydrated for water we have lost
-Sweating- water loss to keep us cool in hot temperatures
- Excellent solvent- good for transport of glucose+ salt in blood+ transport other minerals in xylem and phloem cells of plants
-water provides medium for chemical reactions in cytoplasm
Draw a water molecule.
Page 10 of introduction to water booklet
Draw a dot and cross diagram of a water molecule
Page 10 of introduction to water booklet
Show the structural or displayed formula of water
Page 10 of introduction to water booklet
What is a hydrogen bond
A weak bond formed between a slightly electronegative atom and a slightly electropositive atom in different molecules
How many hydrogen bonds can each water molecule form
Each water molecule can form up to 4 hydrogen bonds
How many hydrogen bonds are there in one drop of water
6.68 * 10 to the power of 21
hydrogen bonds
What is special about hydrogen bonds
One hydrogen bond is weak but many collectively are strong
Why does water form hydrogen bonds
Water = polar molecule- there is an uneven charge distribution across molecule- one part is a little bit + and one part is a little bit -
Describe the bonding between 2 oxygen molecules
1) Oxygen atoms are same size- they have the same electronegativity so exert the same pull on the pair of electrons in covalent bond between them
-electrons stay exactly in middle between 2 oxygen atoms
- means that charge distribution across molecules is equal therefore it is non polar
Describe the bonding between Oxygen and Hydrogen atoms
-Oxygen atom-much larger than hydrogen atom
- oxygen atom has a greater electronegativity it exerts a stronger pull on the pair of electrons in the bond
-the electrons are pulled closer to the oxygen atom than the hydrogen atom
-means that there is a slightly more negative charge around the oxygen atom and slightly less around the hydrogen atom
Describe how a water molecule is formed
-water molecule has 2 O-H bonds so it has 2 slightly positive regions over the hydrogen atoms and 1 slightly negative regions over the oxygen atom
Describe the property and structure of water and how this makes it a good solvent
-Universal solvent
- polar (hydrophilic)- so charged molecules dissolve readily in it
- the slightly + charge on H will attract any - solutes
- the slightly - charge on O atom of water will attract any+ ions in solutes
Describe using structure and properties of water, how it is a good transport medium
-Polar substance- dissolve, easily transported in H20 in blood of animals + xylem of plat cells where needed in organisms
-Cohesion between H2O molecules allows it to transport dissolved solutes
- Cohesion= ‘sticking together’ by H bonds- formed between H + O atoms in different molecules
- H20 moves up xylem of plants due to transpiration- as a continuous column of water
- Adv= when H20 evaporates out of stomata in leaves - it leaves a negative pressure which pulls on the continuous column of water so it is easily transported up the stem as it is all coheased/ stuck together
- if seperate, molecules- would be much harder/ impossible for H20 molecules to move up xylem
- properties allow for efficient transport of nutrients + waste in organisms
How does water form hydrogen bonds?
- -region of O atom of one H2O molecule is attracted to the + region of the H atoms of another H20 molecule
Choose the write option:
In a water molecule,
a)all of the atoms have a slightly positive charge
b) the oxygen atom has a slightly negative charge and the hydrogen atoms have a slightly positive charge
c) the oxygen atom has a slight positive charge and the hydrogen atoms have a slightly negative charge
d) all of the atoms have a slight negative charge
B
The bond between one hydrogen atom and the oxygen atom in a water molecule is a:
a) hydrogen bond
b) ionic bond
c)covalent bond
d)James bond
In a water molecule= covalent
between water molecules= hydrogen bond
answer= c
The electrons are shared ____________ between the atoms in a water molecule.
a) equally
b) unequally
c) fairly
d) unfairly
Answer= b
unequally
A water molecule is:
a) electronegative
b) polar
c) non-polar
d) charged
b
polar
Water molecules are attracted to one another because they are:
a) fit
b) polar
c) non-polar
d) electronegative
b= Polar
Hydrogen bonds are formed between:
a) The oxygen and each hydrogen atom in a water molecule
b) 2 hydrogen atoms in a hydrogen molecule
c)between hydrogen atoms in different molecules
d) between a slightly electronegative atom in 1 molecule and a slightly electropositive atom in a different molecules
d
Practical observations made:
Water has a much higher specific heat capacity than other substances/materials e.g. oil or aluminum
How does Hydrogen bonding cause this ?
Many hydrogen bonds that link water molecules let water absorb large amount of heat without changing its chemical state e.g. liquid to gas
How does water having high specific heat capacity help organisms
-stabilizes temp in large bodies of water e.g. ponds /lakes/ oceans +helps organisms maintain homeostasis as water temperature changes over a period of time rather than rapid change
-provides good aquatic habitat e.g. pond stays at a relatively constant temperature- allows survival of organisms
How does Hydrogen bonding cause Cohesion in water molecules?
Water molecules show a strong attraction to one another, hydrogen bonds in water allow water molecules to stick together
Why is cohesion good in water molecules for us?
This property allows for efficient transport of nutrients and waste in organisms.
Water molecules formed a sphere like a thick layer of water molecules stuck to each other- useful for water striding insects that live on water as this creates a high surface tension.
Why is ice less dense than water. Use hydrogen bonding in your answer to explain this.
Configuration of hydrogen bonds in water cause it to expand when it freezes- expansion causes ice to have lower density than liquid water so it floats on top.
Why is ice being able to float on liquid water good for us?
Bodies of water freeze from the top down- acts as insulator to protect water below it from freezing this protects aquatic organisms so they can survive winter
Sugar, water, oil, salt do not dissolve / combine in the water rather separate into layers (oil+ water) precipitates (sugar +salts) at the bottom- How does hydrogen bonding cause this
To do with the polarity and hydrogen bonding ability of water molecules- makes it a universal solvent as long as the other substances are also polar
Why is that good in living organisms?
Cells are mostly made up of water- these solutions of ions + molecules allow chemical reactions to occur much more frequently- important as it allows organisms to respond to their environment
Why does a paper clip float on water using hydrogen bonding?
Surface tension of water-water molecules at surface are much more strongly attracted to each other than the air above so cling tightly onto each other on which paperclip balances
Why is high surface tension good within water molecules- how can this be beneficial to living organisms?
Water beads upon waxy surfaces+ water striding insects are able to walk and live on the surface of water
Define polar compound
When a compound has an uneven charge distribution
Define hydrogen bond
Weak bond formed between slightly electronegative atom and a slightly electropositive atom of different molecules
Define Cohesion in terms of water
water molecules sticking to each other
Define adhesion in terms of water
water molecules sticking to other surfaces
When NaCl is dissolved in water the sodium ions
a) are attracted to the oxygen atoms of water molecules
b) are attracted to the hydrogen atoms of the water molecules
c) are attracted to each other
d) do not dissociate from the sodium chloride
A
Hydrogen bonds
a) form between hydrogen atoms in different molecules
b) are strong bonds
c) hold water molecules to one another
d) hold the 2 hydrogen atoms together in a molecule of hydrogen gas
c
When a glass is filled to the brim with water, the water appears to bulge from the sides of the glass due to
a) Capillarity
b) thermal energy
c) adhesion
d) cohesion
Cohesion
When liquid water is heated most of the energy that the water initially absorbs is used to
a) raise the temperature of water
b) break the covalent bonds between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms in water
c) make the water boil
d) break the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules
D
Why is water a good solvent
Because of the polarity (uneven charge distribution) of the hydrogen bonding ability of water- oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other
What kinds of substances decides water can be involved in hydrogen bonding?
Ammonia (NH3) and Hydrogen fluoride gas (HF)
What property of water allows it to stick to a dry surface such as wooden countertop?
Adhesion- sticks to to other surfaces
How does water help cells to keep an uneven temperature despite temperature changes in the environment ?
Water has a high specific heat capacity- acts as a buffer in cells, helps maintain an even temperature and avoid sudden temp changes
- also helps to evenly disperse heat in our bodies- it can absorb a lot of heat before changing temperature
Explain why water forms large round drops as it falls from a faucet with a slow leak?
Cohesive forces allow water molecules in each drop to move as close as possible to one another, making the drop round
Water is often called the universal solvent because it dissolves most substances that are important to living things. What does this suggest about the nature of those substances?
Because those other substances are also polar e.g. Glucose and water dissolve however non-polar substances e.g. oil do not dissolve in water
Draw 3 water molecule and show the hydrogen bonding between them.
See water booklet page 17
The density of water decreases as the temperature falls below 4*c , so ice floats on the top of the pond
-Ice floats as it is less dense- water molecules are spread out and form crystal/ lattice structure
-this forms insulating layer- acts as a barrier to cold
- water below ice does not freeze- kept at higher temperature
-hence organisms do not freeze- animals/ organisms can still swim/ move allows currents/ nutrients to circulate and organisms to survive as a result
Water acts as a solvent for ions such as nitrates- why is this good for organisms that live in ponds?
Solubility- ions (polar/ charged) are attracted to other- charged ions /bind to other charged ions within water
-so fish or other organisms can uptake minerals and nutrients easily
A large quantity of energy is required to raise the temperature of water by 1 * c. Why is this good for organisms that live in large bodies of water?
Temperature stability- many stable hydrogen bonds between molecules
- requires a lot of energy to break bonds as it has a high specific heat capacity
-therefore temperature stays constant- small variation in temperature- stays cool in summer + warm in winter
-temperature does not have an affect on enzymes/ they wont denature so metabolic rates of fish/other aquatic organisms
State the name of the bond that holds water molecules together.
Hydrogen bond
DNA is one of many substances which will dissolve in water. Explain why water is a good solvent.
Because it is a polar molecule so it attracts ions from other substances to bind together.
- e.g. sodium chloride. Sodium is a cation so is attracted to the delta negative oxygen and Chlorine an anion so is attracted to the delta positive hydrogen atoms.
A student studies the pack of plant food, supplied by some cut flowers, the list of ions included hydrogen and sodium. Suggest what roles this may play in helping the cut flowers to last longer.
Hydrogen= used to regulate pH
Sodium= used to regulate water potential
Explain how properties relating to the density of water contribute to the survival of organisms. (3 marks)
During winter, large bodies of water freezes e.g. in lakes, ponds etc.
- when it freezes it becomes less dense as there is more distance between the hydrogen bonds which are in a fixed position so ice floats on the top
-this ice acts as an insulator to protect the water below it and protects aquatic organisms and helps them survive during winter and so provides habitat for species.
Outline the properties of water which make it an ideal habitat for an amphibian? ( 2 marks)
-H2O has high surface tension- water molecules are strongly attracted to one another- more so than the air above- so cling tightly onto each other creating a surface on which water striding insects can walk or live on.
Describe the formation of a hydrogen bond between 2 molecules of water and explain why water can form these bonds.
Hydrogen bonds occurs between a delta positive (hydrogen) and delta negative (oxygen) in different molecules. -Because oppositely charged atoms are attracted to each other and therefore form a weak bond- hydrogen bond.
-because of the charges water is known as a polar substance.
Why is the ability of water to act as a solvent important for the survival of organisms? ( 3 marks)
-it acts as a medium for metabolic reactions
-and allows ionic compounds to separate e.g. sodium chloride so that it can be transported around the body.
What are all carbohydrates made up of?
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
What are the 3 types of carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides
Disaccharide
Polysaccharides
What is a monosaccharide
a simple sugar e.g. glucose that constitutes the building block of a more complex form of sugar
What is a disaccharide
2 sugar molecules joined together
Define polysaccharide
Many sugar molecules joined together
What are the properties of monosaccharides
Glucose= sweet+ soluble
Fructose= quickly broken down in respiration to release energy
Galactose= classified according to the number of carbons in molecule
What are the properties of disaccharide
-two monosaccharides joined together
-less sweet than monosaccharides
-used for short term energy storage e.g. for transport for monosaccharides in plants
What are the properties of polysaccharides?
-many simple sugar molecules joined together to make complex structures
Uses:
-Long term energy storage in plants
-medium term energy storage in animals
-cellulose cell wall in plants
Name 4 carbohydrate monosaccharides
-ribose
-glucose
-fructose
-galactose
Ronaldo, greatest, footballer
Name 3 carbohydrate disaccharides
-maltose
-lactose
-sucrose
Messi lacks skills
Name 3 Carbohydrate Polysaccharides
Starch
Cellulose
Glycogen
Speed could grow
Monosaccharides like glucose are:
- soluble
-small
-quickly broken down to release energy
-molecules can join together in a number of different ways
What are monosaccharides with 3 carbons called
Triose sugar
What are monosaccharides with 5 sugars called
Pentose sugars
What are monosaccharides with 6 sugars called
Hexose sugars
Monosaccharides are classified by what
The number of carbon atoms they have
What is the general formula for a hexose monosaccharide like glucose
CNH2NON
Glucose= C6H1206
Give an example of a hexose monosaccharide
Glucose
What is a similarity between an alpha and beta glucose
They have the same molecular formula
What is an isomer
They have the same molecular formula but different structure e.g. glucose
True for false:
Most monosaccharides have a number of different isomers
True
What is the OH group called
Hydroxyl Group
The monomer glucose makes what polymer
Starch, Cellulose and Glycogen
The monomer amino acids makes what polymer
Amino acids make the polymer protein
The monomer Nucleotide makes what polymer
DNA and RNA
What is the difference between alpha and beta glucose
In alpha glucose the hydroxyl group is attached facing down and away from main structure while in the beta glucose the hydroxyl group is attached above the carbon ring and on the first carbon
How can you remember where the hydrogen and hydroxyl group is located on an alpha and on a beta glucose
Alpha= hydrogen on top
Beta= hydrogen on bottom
of carbon ring structure
What is ribose an example of
Pentose sugar which is used to make the nucleic acid RNA
What is deoxyribose an example of
a pentose sugar which is used to make nucleic acid DNA
What is the general formula of a pentose monosaccharide e.g. DNA
CN H2N 0N-1
Draw the pentose sugar Ribose
Page 5 carbohydrates booklet
Draw the pentose sugar deoxyribose
page 5 carbohydrates booklet
Why does deoxyribose not have the same general formula as ribose?
Deoxyribose has one less oxygen than ribose
-deoxyribose has a hydrogen whilst ribose has OH (hydroxyl)
Due to this, the deoxyribose is more stable than ribose sugar
Why is deoxyribose more stable than ribose sugar
Because deoxyribose has one less oxygen atom and instead has a Hydrogen instead of hydroxyl group present like in ribose
Fructose is a what sugar and why
-Hexose sugar because it has 6 carbons present in its structure
Galactose is what sugar and why
Hexose sugar because it has 6 carbons present in its structure
Disaccharides are made up of…
2 monosaccharides joined together with a glycosidic bond via a condensation reaction whereby water is released.
Polysaccharides are made up of…
multiple monosaccharides joined up together
Describe a similarity between synthesis of disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Both are formed by the creation of glycosidic bonds in a condensation reaction which releases
Describe a similarity between the breakdown of disaccharides and polysaccharides
They are broken down using enzymes by the addition of water to break the glycosidic bonds in a hydrolysis reactions
What is a condensation reaction
It is the joining up of 2 molecules together by removing water- a chemical bond is formed.
What is a hydrolysis reaction
It is the splitting apart of molecules through the addition of water, a chemical bond is broken
How do you make maltose
Glucose+ glucose= maltose + water
How do you make lactose
glucose+ galactose=lactose +water
How do you make sucrose
glucose+ fructose= sucrose+ water
How do we know the number of the carbon which is involved in the synthesis of the glycosidic bond e.g. 1-4 is between carbon 1 and carbon 4
We start counting by the first carbon after the oxygen in the carbon ring for when we are naming glycosidic bonds e.g. 1-4 glycosidic bond
What is the symbol equation of the synthesis of maltose
C6H1206+C6H1206= C12H22011+ H20
Description of the synthesis of maltose
The hydroxyl group on carbon 1 of one glucose monomer reacts with the hydroxyl group on carbon 4 of the second glucose monomer in a condensation reaction to release 1 water molecule. A 1-4 glycosidic bond is formed between them.
What is the precise name of the bond formed in a maltose disaccharide
1-4 glycosidic bond
What is the symbol equation of the synthesis of lactose
C6H12O6+C6H12O6= C12H22O11+ H20
Describe the synthesis of lactose
The hydroxyl group on carbon 1 of one glucose monomer reacts with the hydroxyl group on carbon 4 of the galactose monomer in a condensation reaction to release 1 water molecule. A 1-4 glycosidic bond is formed between them.
What is the precise name of the bond formed in a lactose disaccharide
1-4 glycosidic bond
What is the symbol equation for the synthesis of sucrose
C6H1206+C6H12O6= C12H22O11+ H20
Describe the synthesis of sucrose
The hydroxyl group on carbon 1 of one glucose monomer reacts with the hydroxyl group on carbon 2 of fructose- second monomer in a condensation reaction to release 1 water molecule. A 1-2 glycosidic bond is formed between them.
What is the precise name of the bond formed formed in a sucrose disaccharide
1-2 glycosidic bond
What is the symbol equation for the breakdown of maltose
C12H22O11+ H20= C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
What is the symbol equation for the breakdown of sucrose
C12H22O11+ H20= C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
What is the symbol equation for the breakdown of lactose
C12H22O11+ H20= C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Describe the breakdown of maltose
The water molecule is used to hydrolyse the hydroxyl groups on the maltose disaccharide in a hydrolysis reaction whereby 2 hydroxyl groups are reformed to produce 2 glucose monomers using a water molecule. An enzyme is required to catalyze this reaction- Maltase. The 1-4 glycosidic bond is therefore broken.
Describe the breakdown of sucrose
The water molecule is used to hydrolyse the sucrose while it breaks down by the use of the enzyme sucrase in a hydrolysis reaction whereby one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose monomers are formed. The hydroxyl (OH) is formed by carbon 1 of one glucose molecule and Hydrogen (H) on carbon 2 of fructose molecule. the 1-2 glycosidic bond is therefore broken.
Describe the breakdown of lactose
The water molecule is used to hydrolyse the lactose disaccharide in a hydrolyses reaction whereby glucose and galactose are formed. Carbon 1 of galactose forms a hydroxyl group on top of the carbon ring and carbon 4 of the glucose molecule forms a hydrogen bond on top of the carbon ring therefore the 1-4 glycosidic bond is broken.
What enzyme is required in the hydrolyses of maltose
Maltase
What enzyme is required in the hydrolyses of sucrose
Sucrase
What enzyme is required in the hydrolyses of lactose
Lactase
State the precise name of the covalent bond that forms between the 2 glucose molecules and the name of the disaccharide that is formed
Bond = 1-4 Glycosidic bond
Disaccharide= Maltose
State 2 other structural similarities between lactose and maltose
-Both contain 6 carbons on the carbon ring- therefore are both hexose sugars
-they both have the same 1-4 glycosidic bond
State 4 differences between the maltose disaccharide and lactose disaccharide
Maltose=
-both monomers are glucose
-Alpha glucose
-Alpha glycosidic bond
-Both monomers in the same direction
Lactose=
-1 glucose monomer and 1 galactose monomer
-beta glucose
-beta glycosidic bond
-sugars are flipped and are not facing each other
Sucrase is the enzyme that breaks down sucrose. Which bond is broken by sucrase.
Alpha glycosidic
What are polysaccharides and their uses
They are made up of 1000s of monosaccharide monomers
-not classified as sugars- not sweet
-insoluble- so will have no osmotic effects
-most are energy storing molecules
-except for cellulose- a structural compound within cell wall
How does the structure of starch (amylose) relate to its function
The angle of the bond means the long chain of glucose twists in on itself to form a helix. It is further stabilized by hydrogen bonding between adjacent hydroxyl groups. This makes the molecule more compact and be able to fit more glucose in a small space and much less soluble than glucose making it an ideal structural and storage carbohydrate.
Where is starch ( amylose) found
Found in: plants as a chemical store- in cells
In amylose- starch what type of glucose monomers are joined together by a glycosidic bond
Types of glucose: Alpha glucose monomers
What types of bonding occurs in amylose starch between the alpha glucose monomers
Type of bonding: 1-4 glycosidic, hydrogen bonding
Describe how the structure of amylopectin relates to its function
- chains of glucose molecules made up of preferred respiratory substrate- means many glucose molecules are available- more free ends, so more respiration can take place +more glucose can be released in form of energy when needed. -has a branched structure which increases surface area + exposes multiple free ends of molecules- provides larger s.a. for enzymes to attach therefore can rapidly hydrolyse starch back to glucose, resulting in a rapid supply of energy
-Polysaccharides= insoluble in water so wont affect water potential and will have no osmotic effect, meaning excess water wont be moving into cells causing them to become turgid.
Where is amylopectin found
plants as a chemical energy store
What type of glucose monomers link together in amylopectin
Alpha glucose
What type of bonding takes place in amylopectin
1-4 glycosidic bonding between the monomers and 1-6 glycosidic bonding between branches
How does the structure of glycogen relate to its function
- highly branched molecule- it has more 1-6 glycosidic bonding than amylopectin – can be even more rapidly hydrolysed back to glucose- advantage speeds up process of storing + releasing glucose molecules required by the cell especially in animals as they are more mobile ad movement requires energy, glucose is needed in respiration to release that energy
- Highly Branched structure increases s.a- exposes multiple free ends of glucose molecule- provides larger surface area for enzymes to attach- therefore can be rapidly hydrolysed when excess glucose is stored, resulting in a rapid supply of energy
Insoluble in water so won’t affect water potential and will have no osmotic effect, meaning excess water won’t be moving into cells causing cell lysis.
Where is glycogen found
animals as a chemical energy storage for glucose in muscles and liver cells
What types of glucose monomers are needed in structure of glycogen
Alpha glucose
What type of bonding is formed between alpha glucose molecules in glycogen
1-4 glycosidic bonding between the monomers and 1-6 glycosidic bonding between branches
How does the structure of cellulose relate to its function
-Polymers form long straight chains of beta glucose- joined together by 1-4 glycosidic bond. -Microfibrils =strong threads made up of long cellulose chains joined together by hydrogen bonds
- provides structural supports in plants so it will hold its shape,
-Insoluble= won’t affect water potential, no osmotic effect- cell won’t become turgid
Where is cellulose found
plants as a structure to strengthen cell wall
What type of glucose monomers are needed to form cellulose
beta glucose
What type of bonding occurs in cellulose
1-4 glycosidic bonding
How many polysaccharides is starch made up of
It is made up of 2 polymers amylose (insoluble) and amylopectin (soluble)
What is starch used for and in which type of cell
Glucose is stored as starch in plants- used in respiration and is converted into energy source through hydrolysis reaction and addition of H20
What is the precise name of monomers that amylose is made up of
Alpha glucose monomers joined together by a 1-4 glycosidic bond
What shape beginning with h does amylose take
helix shape
What is it about the bonds between the alpha glucose monomers that causes it to be this shape
- angle of 1-4 glycosidic bond means long chain of glucose twists to form a helix
What 2 properties does amylose have
-compact
-insoluble
Amylopectin creates 1-6 glycosidic bonds between chains. What ‘b’ does this bond create
A branched structure
How often does the branches occur in amylopectin
1-6 branching points occur aprox once in every 25 glucose subunits
What is the name of the equivalent energy storage molecule to amylopectin that is found in animals and fungi
Glycogen
What is different about the branching in amylopectin compared to the branching in glycogen
Glycogen forms more branches than amylopectin
Glycogen forms more branches than amylopectin- what properties does this prove
-glycogen is more compact and less space is needed for it to be stored
-more branches= more free ends where glucose molecules can be added or removed
Why is it important for animals to be able to store a lot of energy in less space
It speeds up the process of storing or releasing glucose molecules required by the cell without increasing mass
What word beginning with ‘c’ describes the property that coiling and branching gives to storage polysaccharides
Compact
How and why does branching affect storage and release of glucose molecules
It means glucose can be stored +released quickly when required by cell
-glycogen+ amylopectin have a lot of branches + are compact so take up less space- ideal for storage, especially as animals are mobile +need more energy for respiration
- a plant would require less energy
What type of reaction is used to release glucose from starch or glycogen
Hydrolysis- uses water to breakdown starch in plants or glycogen in animals into glucose
What ‘e’ are these reactions catalyzed by
Enzymes
What are the monomers that join together to make cellulose
beta glucose
Why cant beta glucose join together in the same way that 2 alpha glucose monomers can
Because the hydroxyl group in carbon 1 and carbon 4 of the 2 glucose molecules are too far from each other to react
What has to happen to alternate beta glucose molecules to form the polymer cellulose
Alternate beta glucose molecules have to be turned upside down
What 2 things is a polymer made of beta glucose not able to do so what shape does it take instead
it is unable to coil or form branches so instead a straight chain molecule is formed called cellulose
What type of bond to cellulose molecules form with each other
Hydrogen bonds
What m does cellulose polymer joined together with hydrogen bonding create
microfibrils
What do microfibrils join together to form
Macrofibrils
What are 2 properties of microfibrils and macrofibrils and how does this suit them for their function of forming cell walls
-fibres are strong+ insoluble and need to make cell walls- which help the cell maintain shape+ keep rigid
Cellulose forms which essential part of our diet and why is it necessary for a healthy digestive system.
-very hard to break cellulose down into its monomers +forms the fiber or ‘roughage’- to allow movement of the bowel + is necessary for a healthy digestive system
-decreases risk of metabolic disorder
- decreases cholesterol levels
State similarities between cellulose and amylose
-form 1-4 glycosidic bonds
- both have no branches
State similarities between amylose and amylopectin
-storage of glucose
-very compact - can fit a lot of glucose molecules in a small space
-both use alpha glucose monomers
State similarities between cellulose and amylopectin
- both are organic compounds + carbohydrates
State similarities between cellulose, amylose and amylopectin
-all form glycosidic bonds
-insoluble
-wont affect water potential, no osmotic affect, cell wont burst or become turgid
-free ends for glucose monomers to join or break off
-all polysaccharides
What are properties of cellulose
-structure+ strength for cell wall
-forms long straight chains held together by hydrogen bonds to form fibrils
State similarities between glycogen and amylopectin
-form 1-4 glycosidic bonds between monomers and 1-6 glycosidic bonds between branches
-highly branched, rapid hydrolysis
State similarities between amylose and amylopectin in terms of energy storage
they are both found in plants
State similarities in terms of energy storage between glycogen, amylose, and amylopectin
-made of preferred respiratory substrate
-alpha glucose
-all form glycosidic bonds
- all polysaccharides
- all carbohydrates
-insoluble- wont affect water potential so no osmotic effect so no cell lysis or become turgid
-all used for energy store
Chitin is made up of a macromolecule - N-acetylglucosamin . How does the composition of the N-acetylglucosamin differ from the composition of a monosaccharide sugar.
It is a macromolecule that contains nitrogen (NHCOCH3)
Compare 3 structural differences between Amylose and Cellulose molecules
Amylose:
-coiled
- no hydrogen bond
- form 1-4 glycosidic bond (alpha monosaccharides)
- alpha glucose monomers
Cellulose:
-no coiling
- contains hydrogen bonds to link chain to form fibrils
-forms 1-4 glycosidic bond ( beta monosaccharides)
-beta glucose monosaccharides
Which properties of cellulose make it suitable for forming cell walls
-forms long straight chains- held in parallel by many hydrogen bonds which provide collective strength ( this then forms fibrils)
- insoluble- water potential wont affect + no osmotic affect- means cell will not become turgid or cause cell lysis
Describe the formation of cellulose
Condensation, polymerisation of beta glucose molecules
Name the carbohydrate molecules used to store energy in plants and animals
Plants= starch (amylopectin + amylose)
Animals= glycogen
Glycogen forms a lot of 1-6 glycosidic bonds to produce…
a highly branched molecule for rapid release of alpha glucose
Mammals convert the monosaccharide glucose into a highly branched polysaccharide called glycogen which gets stored in liver cells. Explain why Mammals store glycogen instead of glucose
-Mammals store glycogen as it is insoluble so wont affect water potential so no osmotic affect + cell lysis wont occur
- it is stored as glycogen as glycogen can be rapidly hydrolysed and glucose can be used for energy
-it has a lot of branches so it is very compact ( ideal for storage takes up less space)
Give 3 properties of cellulose that make it suitable as the basis of plant cell walls
1) forms strong hydrogen bonds - strengthens+ supports structure of cell
2) insoluble so wont affect water potential in plant cells- will have no osmotic affect so cell wall wont become turgid
3) unreactive or inert
State one property of glucose that allows it to be easily transported in animals
It is polar and soluble- therefore can be carried in solvents
Explain how the structure of glycogen differs from that of amylopectin to make it better suited as an energy store in animals
-glycogen has more 1-6 glycosidic bonds- meaning more glucose monosaccharides can be formed when glycogen is hydrolysed
-glycogen has a lot more branches- it is much more compact and takes up less space- it is ideal for storage
- glycogen has more free ends when blood glucose levels are too high glucose can be added to the chain of polysaccharides and stored in the form of glycogen
True or False:
Amylose is soluble
False
True or False:
Amylose is formed by condensation reactions
True
True or False:
Amylose is branched
False
What elements are lipids made from
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and sometimes phosphorus
What are lipids not
Not polymers
What are lipids
macromolecules made up of large sub units that are not the same hence they are not polymers
What is the property that all lipids have in common
They are insoluble in water, so do not dissolve in water. This is because they are mostly non polar structures. This means that they have a hydrophobic property
List 5 properties of lipids
-macromolecules
- not polymers
- insoluble
- non-polar
-hydrophobic
-dissolves in organic solvents such as ethanol
What do lipids dissolve in
Organic solvents such as ethanol
What is a triglyceride made up of
It is made up of 3 fatty acid tails and a glycerol molecule
Draw out the structure of cellulose
carbohydrate booklet page 3
Draw out the structure of amylopectin
carbohydrate booklet page 3
Draw out the structure of amylose
carbohydrate booklet page 3
Draw out the structure of glycogen
Carbohydrate booklet page 3
Draw out an alpha glucose
Carbohydrate booklet page 4
Draw out a beta glucose
carbohydrate booklet page 4
Draw out ribose and deoxyribose- circle the difference
Carbohydrate booklet page 5
Draw out the synthesis of maltose
page 10 carbohydrate booklet
Draw out the synthesis of lactose
page 10 carbohydrate booklet
Draw out the synthesis of sucrose
page 11 of carbohydrate booklet
Draw out breakdown of maltose
Page 12 carbohydrate booklet
Draw out the breakdown of lactose
page 13 carbohydrate booklet
Draw out the breakdown of sucrose
page 12 of carbohydrate booklet
Show 1 to 6 glycosidic bond between alpha glucose and fructose
q 4 page 17 carbohydrate booklet
Close up of bonding of polysaccharide including branches draw it out
page 23 carbohydrate booklet
Draw the structure of triglyceride include the glycerol and fatty acids
Lipids booklet page 4
Draw out the glycerol molecule
Lipids booklet page 4
Draw out the fatty acid chains
Lipids booklet page 4
How can triglycerides differ from each other
-their tales can be saturated or unsaturated
- their tales can be different lengths
What does it mean if a fatty acid is saturated
It contains a lot of hydrogen atoms- it is ‘full’ of as many hydrogens as possible
- saturated fatty acid has no C-C double bonds
What is the general formula for a fatty acid
CN H2N+1 COOH
Draw out the carboxylic acid group on a fatty acid tail
Lipids booklet page 5
What does a monosaturated fatty acid have
they have 1 C–C double bond
Draw out a monosaturated fatty acid
Lipids booklet page 6
What is the general formula for a monosaturated fatty acid
CN H2N-1 COOH
What is a polyunsaturated fatty acid
- can contain a number (more than 1) of double C–C bonds
Draw out a polyunsaturated fatty acid
Lipids booklet page 6
What is the general formula for a polyunsaturated fatty acid
can’t have a formula as it can have any number of unsaturated fatty acids
What is a phospholipid made up of
A phospholipid is made up of a glycerol backbone with 2 fatty acid ‘tails’ and I phosphate hydrophillic head attached to the glycerol molecule
How do the 2 fatty acids bond to the glycerol in a phospholipid
The 2 fatty acids bond to the glycerol via 2 condensation reactions resulting in 2 ester bonds
Draw out what a phospholipid looks like
lipids booklet page 7
What molecule forms the backbone of triglycerides and phospholipids
Glycerol
What elements are triglycerides and phospholipids made up of
They are both made up of Carbon, Hydrogen and oxygen
However phospholipids can also contain phosphate as well
Do triglycerides have a phosphate head
No
What has a phosphate head
Phospholipids
How many fatty acid tails does a triglyceride have
3
How many fatty acid tails does a phospholipid have
2
Compare the nature of fatty acid tail between triglycerides and phospholipids
Triglycerides= any combination of saturated and unsaturated
Phospholipid= 1 saturated fatty acid tails and 1 unsaturated fatty acid tail
What is a macromolecule
Molecule containing very large number of atoms built up of smaller chemical structures
Why is a triglyceride classed as a macromolecule
Because it is made up of glycerol and 3 fatty acid tails- it is not a single molecule
Why is a phospholipid considered a macromolecule
Because of its large size- and because it also contains 2 fatty acid tails and a phosphate head
What is the name of the bond between the glycerol and the fatty acid tail
Ester bond
What is the name of the functional group COOOH at the end of a fatty acid
Carboxylic acid group
What is the difference between a saturated and unsaturated fatty acid
Saturated= no C–C double bond
Unsaturated= has C–C double bond
How many double bonds does a polyunsaturated fatty acid have
Any number- more than 1 of C–C double bond
How many of the phospholipid tails are saturated
1
How can a fatty acid be joined to a glycerol molecule
In a condensation reaction
How many condensation reactions are needed to synthesis a triglyceride
3
What is the word equation for the synthesis of triglycerides
Glycerol+ 3 fatty acid chains= triglyceride + 3 water molecules
Describe the synthesis of a triglyceride
The hydroxyl groups on the glycerol molecule react with the hydroxyl group of the carboxylic acid group of the fatty acid tails in 3 condensation reaction to produce 3 water molecules and form 3 ester bonds.
Draw out the synthesis of a triglyceride
Lipids booklet page 10
Draw out the chemical shorthand version of:
-triglyceride
-saturated fatty acid
-monosaturated fatty acid
-polysaturated fatty acid
Lipids booklet- attempt question
q 1 page 11
What is the chemical formula for a glycerol molecule
The chemical formula for a glycerol molecule is C3H5(OH)3.
What enzymes are needed to catalyze hydrolysis reactions or breakdown of triglycerides
Lipase
Draw out the breakdown of a triglyceride
Lipids booklet page 10
Word equation for breakdown of triglyceride
Triglyceride+ water= glycerol+ 3 fatty acids
Describe the breakdown of triglyceride.
In the hydrolyses of triglycerides, 3 water molecules are added and these complete the hydroxyl groups on the end of each fatty acid tail and glycerol whilst breaking the ester bonds. 3 Hydrolyses reactions are needed.The reactions are catalyzed by lipase enzymes.
Attempt questions 1 and 2 in lipids booklet page 11
