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Biological Molecules Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is a polymer

A

A long chain of monomers bonded together

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2
Q

What is a monomer

A

Small units which make large molecules

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3
Q

What are 5 molecules which help organism’s to function

A

Water , nucleic acids ( DNA & RNA ) proteins , carbohydrates , lipids

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4
Q

What are monosaccharides

A

Monomers : glucose , gulactose , ribose and fructose

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5
Q

What are disacharides

A

2 monomers joined together : lactose , maltose , sucrose

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6
Q

What are polysacharides

A

Polymers like cellulose , starch & glycogen

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7
Q

What is a condensation reaction

A

A reaction which joins chemicals while releasing water

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8
Q

What is hydrolysis

A

Using water to break a molecule into 2

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9
Q

Glucose + glucose =

A

Maltose + water

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10
Q

Glucose + gulacotse =

A

Lactose + water

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11
Q

Glucose + fructose =

A

Sucrose + water

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12
Q

What are polysaccharides - and 3 examples ?

A

Lots of monomers bonded together by a glycosydic bond in a condensation reaction E g : cellulose , starch and glycogen

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13
Q

What elements di all carbohydrates contain ?

A

Carbon , hydrogen and oxygen

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14
Q

Monomer for carbohydrates ?

A

Monosaccharides

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15
Q

Polymer for carbohydrates ?

A

Polysaccharide and disaccharide

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16
Q

Protein monomer and polymer

A

Amino acids and polypeptides and proteins

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17
Q

What ratio do hydrogen and oxygen have in carbohydrates

A

2:1

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18
Q

What bonds to carbohydrates have

A

Glycosidic bond

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19
Q

Definition and example of disaccharide

A

2 monomers bonded by a glycosidic bond through a condensation reaction . Eg : lactose , sucrose , maltose

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20
Q

2 types of hexose ?

A

Alpha glucose ( H at c1 ) and Beta glucose ( OH at c1)

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21
Q

What is a pentose

A

Carbohydrate with 5 carbons

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22
Q

2 pentose we need to know

A

Oxyribose ( includes OH at c2 ) and deoxyribose ( contains h at c2)

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23
Q

Why isnt fat classed as a monomer ?

A

It contains glycerol AND fatty acids ] not got 1 repeating unit

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24
Q

What elements do proteins contain ?

A

Carbon , hydrogen , oxygen , sulpher , nitrogen

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25
Q

What elements do nucleic acids contain ?

A

Carbon , hydeogen , oxygen , nitrogen and phosphurus

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26
Q

2 glucose isomers :

A

Alpha glucose - H at c1
Beta - has OH at c1

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27
Q

give 2 examples of reducing sugars :

A

maltose and lactose

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28
Q

give 1 example of non reducing sugars

A

sucrose

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29
Q

2 examples of polysaccharides of starch made by alpha glucose

A

amylose & amylopectin

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30
Q

starch & its relationship with water

A

its insoluble - water cant get into cell by osmosis and cause it to swell

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31
Q

amylopectin structure

A
  • long branched molecule of alpha glucose
  • glyosidic bonds between carbon 1-4 and carbon 1 -6 .
  • hydrolysis of glucose easily
  • plants
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32
Q

amylose structure

A
  • long unbranched chain of alpha glucose
  • glycosydic bond between carbon 1 and 4
  • twist to form helix
  • compact - good for energy storag-plants
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33
Q

glycogen structure

A

-animals
- alpha glucose bonds
- highly branched
- hydrolysis of glucose quickly
- can coil - compact - good energy storage

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34
Q

cellulose structure

A

-plants in cell wall
- beta glucose - unbranched
- c1 an c4 to far to react so alternate beta glucose molecules turn upside down to react
- chains held together by hydrogen bonds - forms microfibres - good for structural support

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35
Q

what elements are lipids made of ?

A

carbon , hydrogen and oxygen

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36
Q

what is different between the ratio of H:O in carbohydrates than lipids ?

A

carbohydrates have 2 : 1 where as lipids have very few oxygens compared to hydrogens .

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37
Q

solubility of lipids ?

A

insoluble in water , but soluble in solvents

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38
Q

triglyceride structure :

A

one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids .
insoluble in water
ester bond holds fatty acid to glycerol
essential fatty acids complete fatty acids . condensation reaction

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39
Q

glycerol structure

A

has 3 hydroxyl group
is an alcohol
essential for making ester bond through condensation reaction

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40
Q

saturated fatty acid

A

-
single bond
saturated with hydrogen
animal fats
raise cholesterol level - bad fats
solid at room temp

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41
Q

unsaturated fatty acids :

A

=
double bond
unsaturated
chain kinks
unsaturated fatty acids
plant fats
reduce cholesterol level - good fats
liquid at room temp .

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42
Q

fatty acids structure

A

a methyl group (CH3)
hydrocarbon chain ( R group )
carboxyl group
tail of fatty acids hydrophobic - insoluble in water .

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43
Q

what are the 4 roles of lipids in organisams ?

A

energy source
waterproofing
heat / thermal energy
protection

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44
Q

energy source - lipids

A

energy can be broken down during respiration
lipids can be broken down into CO2 + H2O- produce more energy than respiration of sugar

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45
Q

waterproofing lipids

A

waxy cuticle ontop of leaves

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46
Q

insulation lipids

A

heat insulator - layer of fat under skin , slow conductor of heat
thermal energy

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47
Q

protection lipids

A

fat can be found around delicate organs

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48
Q

lipids - structure related to properties : tryglicerides

A

excellent source of energy - many hydrogen to carbon bonds

good storage molecules - lots of energy can be stored in small volume

no effect on water potential as triglycerides are hydrophobic
source of water molecules as oxidation of hydrocarbon bonds release quickly
desert animals retain if no liquid water to drink .

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49
Q

phospholipids structure :

A

2 fatty acids - hydrophobic - hates water
1 glycerol molecule
i phosphate molecule - hydrophilic - attract to water

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50
Q

what happens when phospholipid is placed in water

A

heads are hydrophilic so faces water
tails ae hydrophobic so faces away from water as possible .

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51
Q

what bonds do polypeptides form ?

A

peptide bonds

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52
Q

dipeptide definition :

A

2 amino acids bonded together by a peptide bond in a condensation reaction

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53
Q

polypeptide definition :

A

lots of amino acids bonded together to form a peptide bond in a condensation reaction

54
Q

where is peptide bond found ?

A

in-between carbon and nitrogen

55
Q

in a condensation reaction of AA , where does the water molecule come from ?

A

OH from carboxyl group of 1 AA and H from the AA adjacent to that AA from the amine group

56
Q

structure of AA

A

COOH - carboxyl group
H2N - amine / amino group
H group
R group - anything additional - makes amino acid different ( variable region )

57
Q

4 protein structures

A
  • primary
  • secondary
  • tertiary
  • quaternary
58
Q

primary structure of proteins

A

long chain of different amino acids held by peptide bonds - A polypeptide chain

59
Q

secondary structure of proteins

A

forms alpha helix or beta plated sheet
- held by hydrogen bonds
these bonds are between :
C from COOH , and N from NH2
and
O from COOH and H from NH2

60
Q

tertiary structure of proteins

A
  • proteins become further folded
  • 3D
  • held in shape by :
    Ionic bonds , disulphide bond and hydrogen bond .
    I&D bonds form between r groups of different amino acids
    D bond sometimes occur
61
Q

quaternary structure

A

more than 1 polypeptide chain working together EG haemoglobin

62
Q

what protein structure do enzymes have

A

most of the time they have tertiary structure
rarely they have quaternary structure

63
Q

what is activation energy

A

minimum amount of energy needed for reaction to occur -energy released from the reaction should never be more than amount of energy entering the reaction

64
Q

what pros come from lowering the activation energy

A

-less time
- less energy
- less money
as less energy / time/temp is required to start reaction

65
Q

describe structure of enzymes

A
  • biological catalyst
  • globular proteins with specific 3d shape
  • active site is specific region of enzyme which is functional (eg through making reactions or during induced fit )
66
Q

what do enzymes do

A

speed up ROR without being used up
globular proteins
catalyse conversion of large molecules into product molecules
work inside cells( intracellular )
workoutside cells (extracellular )

67
Q

one intracellular enzyme you need to know

A

catalayse

68
Q

catalase info

A
  • harmful to cells
    hydrogen peroxide is harmful to our bodies so it converts it into water and oxygen
69
Q

2 extracellular enzymes you need to know

A

amylase & trypsin

70
Q

what does amalays do ?

A
  • hydrolysis of starch into maltose .
    secreted by salivary glands , pancreas
71
Q

trypsin info

A
  • 1st section of digestion of amino acids
  • breaks down long chain proteins into smaller chains of proteins .
  • catalyses hydrolysis of peptide bonds
72
Q

induced fit model :

A
  • enzyme has an active site
  • active site isn’t complimentary to substrate
  • active site alters itself to become complimentary
  • substrate enters enzyme
  • forms enzyme substrate complex
  • strain on bonds of active site
  • they weaken (hydrogen bonds )
  • products are produced and leave active site .
73
Q

what 2 conditions need to be met for an enzyme to work

A
  • enzyme must come in direct contact with substrate
  • have an active site which fits substrate
74
Q

what effects enzyme action ?

A
  • Ph
  • Concentration of substrate and enzyme
  • Temperature
75
Q

why can changing one of the amino acid orders could prevent enzyme from functioning ?

A

it may change the structure of AA causing the substrate to not fit enzyme thus reaction will not work .

76
Q

ROR for substrate

A
  • at begging very steep line - lots of reactants are turning into products in a short space of time ( ROR increase )
  • gradually decrease in reactants so ROR decreases
  • eventually ran out of reactants (reaction has stopped)
77
Q

ROR for products

A
  • initially no product
  • increase in amount of product as substrate is being broken down
  • as less substrate is broken down less product is formed - eventually no product is formed
78
Q

ROR of straight line - how it can be measured

A

the gradient change in y over change in x

79
Q

ROR of curved line - how it can be measured

A

draw tangent on desired point
- measure change in y over change in x

80
Q

what is the effect of temperature on ROR

A
  • as the temp increases , the particles gain more KE
  • so there are more collisions , and more successful collisions
  • there are more ESC’S formed
  • Optimum temperature is the highest temp where most reactions take place
  • eventually the temp is so high that it breaks the weak H2 bonds
  • this alters shape of enzyme ( tertiary shape of enzyme ) so substrate cannot fit
  • reaction eventually stops
81
Q

what is the effect of pH on ROR

A
  • as pH increases more ESC’ s form so more reactions occur .
    gradually nearer it gets to optimum the higher the KE
  • if pH is too high or to low the enzyme will denature so no ESC’s can form
82
Q

what is the effect of enzyme concentration on ROR

A
  • at beginning -more enzyme concentration = more substrate can be converted into products
  • increase in enzyme conc = increase in ROR
    • gradually at end if there is an increase enzyme molecules = no effect as already have enough enzymes for reaction so rate stays consent .
83
Q

what is the effect of substrate concentration

A
  • ROR increases in proportion to conc of sub
  • increase in sub = fast ROR so more ESC’s form
    occurs till saturation point ( where rate wont change no matter how much more sub you add
84
Q

what is a competitive inhibitor ?

A

an inhibitor which directly fits into active site - and temporarily occupying it
- less ESC’s form
- an increase in conc of substrate ‘ knocks out the inhibitor ‘ so inhibitor will have no effect

85
Q

example of competitive inhibitor

A

malonate - blocks succinate

86
Q

what is a monomer for a nucleic acid

A

nucleotide

87
Q

4 nitrogenous bases are

A
  • Adenine
  • Cytosine
  • Thymine
  • Guanine
88
Q

how do nucleic acids form ?

A

condensation reaction occurs , weak h2 bonds break , water is released , phosphodiester bond is formed between C3 and deoxyribose sugar

89
Q

2 similarities for DNA & RNA

A

both contain
- 4 nitrogenous bases
- phosphate group

90
Q

2 differences for RNA & DNA

A

DNA = A ,C ,T ,G
RNA = A,C,U,G,

DNA = DEOXYRIBOSE
RNA = OXYRIBOSE

91
Q

how many hydrogen bonds do A-T AND G-C form

A

A to T = 2 bonds
C to G = 3 bonds

92
Q

what backbone do nucleic acids contain ?

A

phosphodiester backbone

93
Q

5 properties of nucleic acids

A
  • stable becasue of bonds
  • large molecules - lots of info stored
  • weak h2 bonds = easily broken for replication
  • base pairs can replicate
  • base pair backbone = strength
94
Q

what is the process of mitosis

A
  • DNA replication - increase in number of sub cellular structures
  • cell membrane divide
    produce 2 identical daughter cells
  • growth an repair
  • identical cells.
95
Q

stage 1 o DNA replicaion :

A

original strand of DNA - H2 bonds between bases are broken by enzyme helicase . DNA strands unwind - both strands separate .stagw

96
Q

stage 2 of DNA replication

A
  • hydrolysis of H2 bonds
  • as strands separate , remaining bases form template
  • free floating nucleotides align to complimentary base pair .
97
Q

stage 3 of DNA replication

A
  • free floating nucleotides join to exposed basis
  • all bonds destroyed
  • further hydrolysis
98
Q

stage 4 of DNA replication

A

phosphodiester bonds form due to condensation reaction due to enzyme polymerase which catalyses reaction .
h2 bonds form

99
Q

stage 5 DNA replication

A

2 identical copies of DNA produced - replicated DNA winds back into helix shape .

100
Q

what does ATP stand for ?

A

adenosine triphosphate

101
Q

what is the structure of ATP

A

it has 1 adenine
1 ribose sugar
3 phosphate groups

102
Q

what does ADP stand for ?

A

adenosine diphosphate

103
Q

what is ADP structure

A

1 adenine
1 ribose sugar
2 phosphate groups

104
Q

bonds found in ADP & ATP ?

A

phosphate bond between phosphate groups
ester bond found between ribose sugar and phosphate base
hydrogen bond found between base and ribose

105
Q

what is ATP used for

A

releasing energy for chemical reactions

106
Q

why is ATP more useful than ADP

A

ATP has a 3rd phosphate group which releases a lot of energy . when it is hydrolysed .

107
Q

equation for ATP form

A

ADP + P = ATP
condensation reaction

108
Q

equation for ATP storing energy

A

ATP = ADP + P + energy

109
Q

ATP synthase is for ?

A

making ATP

110
Q

ATP hydrolase is for ?

A

releasing energy

111
Q

synthesis of ATP

A

reversible reaction
catalysed ATP synthase
condensation reaction

112
Q

ATP properties

A
  • small easy to move
  • water soluble
  • bonds between phosphates
  • releases energy in small quantities
    easily generated
113
Q

ATP is a energy rich product - how does this help ?

A
  • helps metabolic processes
  • energy stored in phosphate bonds
114
Q

water molecule properties

A
  • dipolar ( 2 charges )
  • slight +ve charge for hydrogens
  • slight -ve charge for Oxygen
    they attract
    weak hydrogen bonds
115
Q

why are hydrogen bonds weaker than covalent bonds

A

H bonds - between molecules
covalent bonds within molecules .

116
Q

what are the 5 properties of water

A

metabolism
solvent
liquid
density
surface tension - light animals can walk
latent heat of vaporisation
high specific heat capacity - stable environment - buffering
cohesion - stick together

117
Q

metabolite meaning :

A

solvent ( things can dissolve in it ) so reactions can occur
EG : glucose in blood

118
Q

liquid as property meaning FOR WATER

A

it can flow easily . makes and breaks hydrogen bonds

119
Q

density water properties

A

density increases as it goes colder till 4 degrees. after that it gets lighter . help provide insulation ( ice can form a layer on top of water ) to help with insulation .

120
Q

solvent properties of water

A

ions can be dissolved as -ve charge as +ve cgarge can attract to -ve oxygen .

121
Q

high specific heat capacity

A

hydrogen bonds absorb alot of energy
limits rapid buffer change in temp

122
Q

cohesion properties of water :

A

attraction between water molecules

123
Q

high latent heat of vaporisation :

A

takes a lot of energy to break hydrogen bonds
provide cooling effect - sweating when hot .

124
Q

inorganic ions do not contain which element :

A

carbon

125
Q

how do hydrogen ions affect enzyme action

A

pH is e4ffected by h +

126
Q

3 inorganic ions you need to know

A
  • iron
  • hydrogen
  • phosphate
127
Q

sodium ion used for :

A

generating nerve impulses for muscle contraction eg co transport in glucose / amino acids

128
Q

hydrogen ion used for :

A

affect ph of substances

129
Q

phosphate ion used for :

A

photosynthesis and respiration reactions used for DNA /ATP

130
Q

iron ion used for :

A

compound of haemoglobin links to transport of oxygen

131
Q

what is definition of an isomer

A

a molecule with the same molecular formula but different arrangement

Biology (5 decks)

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