Biological explanations of offending behaviour

Question 1

Historical approach

Answer 1

older explanations of criminality were often religious, suggesting criminals were possessed by demons

Lombroso challenged these ideas when he published his scientific theory of the atavistic form in ‘the criminal man’

Question 2

What is the atavistic form

Answer 2

criminals genetically are at a more primitive stage of human evolution than non-criminals, so are ‘throwbacks’.

This means criminality is innate, so criminals are born not made

Question 3

How can criminals be identified due to physical differences that resemble ancestors, suggested by Lombroso

Answer 3

asymmetrical face, heavy brow, very small or big ears that stick out, large jaws, excessively long arms

Thieves - upturned nose
Murderers - hooked beak nose

Question 4

What did Lombroso’s work found

Answer 4

the positivist school of criminology which argues that criminal behaviour has distinct characteristics, and careful measurement of criminals will reveal the causes of criminal behaviour. Lombroso used careful biological measurements of over 4000 living and dead criminals to back up atavistic form

Question 5

Atavistic form strengths

Answer 5

Lombrosos work was conducted with careful measurements, paving the way for more scientific approaches to criminal research. Also by rejecting free will in favour of biological determinism, causes outside of the criminals control could be considered in the justice system, helping arguments for less severe punishments.

Question 6

Atavistic form limitations

Answer 6

Lombrosos research while using careful scientific measurements was flawed, no control group was used so the biological features he described could have been present in the general (non-criminal) population

Goring compared biological measurements of 3000 criminals with 3000 non-criminals. Found “the physical and mental constitution of both criminal and law-abiding persons, of the same age, stature, class, and intelligence are identical. There is no such thing as an anthropological criminal type”

Atavistic form is an example of scientific racism, claiming biological features such as ‘dark skin; identify criminality. This has influenced racist policies of eugenics and biased IQ testing that has harmed black communities. This has ultimately lowered trust in psychology as a science and the objectivity of criminal research

Atavistic form may confuse cause and effect, it may be that people with certain physical features are rejected by society and turn to crime, this results in a criminal stereotype that becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 7

Genetic explanations

Answer 7

suggest there are inherited genes (genotypes) that make it more likely that an individual will engage with criminal behaviour (phenotype) eg aggressive behaviour

Question 8

What does it suggest about criminal behaviour if it is inherited

Answer 8

family studies would show criminal behaviour is inherited across multiple generations

twin studies should show MZ twins more likely to both be criminals due to having a higher concordance rate than DZ twins

adoption studies should show that biological children of criminals go on to commit crimes even when raised with non criminal families

Question 9

Example of a candidate gene linked to high levels of criminal behaviour

Answer 9

specific gene candidates such as the short variant MAOA gene (produces less MAOA) have been linked to high levels of criminal behaviour including aggression

MAOA metabolises a range of neuro-transmitters including serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline this genetic variation potentially leads to poorer impulse control

Question 10

Why do not all people who have genes like the MAOA variant are criminals

Answer 10

it is suggested some genes are only expressed due to an interaction with the environment. One explanation is the diathesis stress, a pre-existing biological vulnerability exists for example inheriting genes (the diathesis), the aggressive behaviour is then triggered by later environmental life stresses such as child neglect/ abuse resulting in violence

Question 11

genetic explanations strength

Answer 11

Rhee included 51 twin and adoption studies in a large meta-analysis including over 110 thousand participants. The research assessed the relative influence of genetic and environmental factors on anti-social behaviour. the results of the data analysis found genetics accounted for 41% of the variance in anti-social behaviour and environmental effects 59%, this suggests that hereditary genetic factors are a significant driver of anti-social crime

Question 12

neural explanations

Answer 12

the range of biological processes and structures within the brain that leads to criminal behaviour, includes biochemistry and large neural structures

Question 13

Neurotransmitters

Answer 13

biological molecules that regulate brain activity, an imbalance is linked to offending behaviour particularly violence

3: noradrenaline, serotonin, dopamine

Question 14

noradrenaline in terms of offending behaviour

Answer 14

high levels result in aggression, likely due to its role in the fight or flight response. naturally higher levels can lead to a more aggressive person

Question 15

serotonin in terms of offending behaviour

Answer 15

linked to the ability to control impulsivity, if this is at a low level this could result in criminals being unable to resist emotional urges

Question 16

dopamine in terms of offending behaviour

Answer 16

causes pleasure and linked to drug addiction. The need to acquire more of the drug to satisfy a biological craving can lead to criminality such as theft

Question 17

neurological structures

Answer 17

biological features in the brain that regulate behaviour

2: reduced limbic system activity, frontal cortex

Question 18

reduced limbic system in terms of offending behaviour

Answer 18

emotions like guilt, empathy and compassion are important in inhibiting violent action.
Psychopaths are thought to have a problem with their limbic system resulting in not experiencing these emotions.

Question 19

frontal cortex in terms of offending behaviour

Answer 19

is responsible for executive function, often overriding strong, aggressive emotional responses from other areas of the brain. Thought to be underdeveloped in violent criminals resulting in not being able to resist impulses

Question 20

genetic and neural explanations strength

Answer 20

Brunner conducted a case study on an extended family in the Netherlands, whose males had a history of impulsive aggression, arson and attempted rape. 5 males had defective MAOA genes producing no MAOA. Suggesting extreme levels of criminality can have a genetic origin that leads to a neurological abnormality

Question 21

biological explanations strength

Answer 21

the development of biological explanations for offending behaviour has important implications for the justice system. Judges who understand that criminal behaviour may be due to biological determinism may consider sentences that focus on treatments rather than punishment

Question 22

neural explanations strengths

Answer 22

Raine measured the volume of the frontal lobe in people with APD compared to people without APD. It was found people with APD had a 11% reduction in prefrontal grey matter. This suggests the reduction in conscience, fear response and decision making deficits in people with APD is due to measurable neurological differences

Kiehl fMRI scanned criminal psychopaths, criminal non-psychopaths and a control group of non-criminals while completing emotional processing tasks. It was found criminal psychopaths had reduced activity in a range of limbic system areas suggesting psychopathic offenders have neurological differences, leading them to experience less emotion lowing inhibition to violence

Question 23

biological explanations limitations

Answer 23

Researchers who argue for biological determinist explanations for offending behaviour do need to consider the social sensitivity of their ideas. Genetic theories could be used to justify policies that discriminate against people with certain genes on the basis of reducing violent crimes

Explaining criminality with biological explanations alone could be argued to be overly reductionist. A more valid understanding would consider other factors of the offender like if they abuse drugs, any mental illnesses and abuse in childhood

Difficult to gain large numbers of willing criminal volunteers, especially criminals that are twins and or adopted, many studies measure anti-social behaviour. This doesnt necessarily mean that these participants would actually perform criminal violence/ offending behaviour.