Biological Approach Flashcards
ASSUMPTION 1 : EVOLUTIONARY INFLUENCES
EVOLUTION is the GRADUAL CHANGE of a species over time, DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION has helped psychologists understand HUMAN BEHAVIOUR. He explained EVOLUTION through NATURAL SELECTION, these are CHARACTERISTICS which give an animal a GREATER chance of SURVIVAL and REPRODUCE offspring with ADAPTIVE GENES. If a characteristic has SURVIVED and is INHERITED it must be ADAPTIVE as it had given the animal a SURVIVAL ADVANTAGE. An eg of this is ALTURISTIC BEHAVIOUR , whereby parents RISK THEIR LIVES to SAVE their offspring. The THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION would argue ALTURISM is an INHERITED, ADAPTIVE TRAIT as it ENHANCED the survival of an IINDIVIDUAL’S GENE POOL-KIN SELECTION. A key concept of the EVOLUTIONARY APPROACH is the ENVIRONMENT of EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTIVENESS, where any species is adapted to the SELECTIVE PRESSURES that existed at the time. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGISTS argue humans have ADAPTED to the environment our ANCESTORS faced, they further argue to UNDERSTAND properly the FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN, we must understand the ENVIRONMENT in which the BRAIN EVOLVED. Humans with particular abilities were more likely to SURVIVE ; those BETTER at FORMING ALLIANCES + RELATIONSHIPS would survive a COMPLEX WORLD.
ASSUMPTION 2: BRAIN LOCALISATION
This refers to the concept of DIFFERENT AREAS of the BRAIN being RESPONSIBLE for DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS. The CEREBAL CORTEX covers the brain and is DIVIDED into FOUR LOBES. Each LOBE has a NUMBER of FUNCTIONS. The FRONTAL LOBE is involved with our PERSONALITIES: THINKING+CREATIVITY. The PARIETAL LOBE receives SENSORY INFO: TEMPERATURE+TOUCH. The TEMPORAL LOBE is RESPONSIBLE FOR OUR MEMORY+SPEECH and finally the OCCUPITAL LOBE is concerned with RECEIVING INFO DIRECTLY TO OUR EYES. SPECIFIC brain structures AFFECT our behaviour , RAINE’S STUDY OF AGGRESSION explores this. He found that MURDERERS who PLEAD NOT GUILTY FOR REASON of INSANITY had DIFFERENCES in the BRAIN ACTIVITY, which could EXPLAIN their VIOLENT BEHAVIOUR . Murderers had INCREASED activity in the CEREBELLUM and RIGHT HEMISPHERE of their brain. The DOMINANCE of the RIGHT HEMISPHERE (AMYGDALA, THALAMUS + HIPPOCAMPUS) is suggestive of certain behaviours being CONTROLLED by CERTAIN BRIAN LOCATIONS.
ASSUMPTION 3: NEUROTRANSMITTERS
The NERVOUS SYSTEM is made up of CELLS called NEURONS. There are MANY BRANCHES at the END of each NEURON: DENDRITES. These BRANCHES give each neuron the FLEXIBILITY to CONNECT to other NEURONS. They COMMUNICATE with one another at the SYNAPSE, whereby MESSAGES are relayed by CHEMICAL MESSANGERS: NEUROTRANSMITTERS. NEUROTRANSMITTERS are RELEASED from the PRE-SYNAPTIC VESICLES in ONE neuron and will EITHER STIMULATE or INHIBIT RECEPTORS in the OTHER NEURON. They have been found to PLAY a SIGNIFICANT ROLE in MENTAL HEALTH . For eg, SEROTONIN plays a role in our MOOD + SLEEP, TOO LITTLE of it has been found in PEOPLE WHO SUFFER FROM DEPRESSION. The use of ANTI-DEPRESSANTS work by increasing the AVAILABILITY of SEROTONIN at the POST - SYNAPTIC RECEPTOR SITE.
MAIN COMPONENTS of DRUG THAERAPY:
1. ANTI-PSYCHOTICS
ANTI-PSYCHOTIC DRUGS treat PSYCHOTIC MENTAL DISORDERS like SCHIZOPHRENIA (Sz). Patients with a PSYCHOTIC DISORDER have LOST TOUCH WITH REALITY + LACK AWARENESS TO THEIR OWN CONDITION. CONVENTIONAL ANTI-PSYCHOTICS are used PRIMARILY to COMBAT POSITIVE SYMPTOMS of Sz ( DELUSIONS + HALLUCINATIONS). Drugs like CHLORPROZAMINE BLOCK the action of the NEUROTRANSMITTER DOPAMINE in the brain by BINDING TO, but NOT STIMULATING, DOPAMINE RECEPTORS. The DOPAMINE CANNOT attach itself to the RECPTOR SITE and the RECEIVING NEURON is NOT ACTIVATED, thus REDUCING the POSITIVE SYMPTOMS of Sz. ATYPICAL ANTI-PSYCHOTIC DRUGS (CLOZARIL) act by TEMPORARILY occupying DOPAMINE RECEPTORS, and RAPIDLY DISASSOCIATING to ALLOW NORMAL DOPAMINE TRANSMISSION. This may explain the REDUCTION of UNPLEASANT SIDE EFFECTS which are commonly found with CONVENTIONAL ANTI-PSYCHOTICS such as TARDIVE DYSKINESIA (involuntary movements of the mouth + tongue). Although, ATYPICAL ANTI-PSYCHOTICS do have SIGNIFICANT SIDE EFFECTS such as WEIGHT GAIN + SERIOUS METABOLIC PROBLEMS.
MAIN COMPONENTS of DRUG THAERAPY:
2. ANTI-DEPRESSANTS
DEPRESSION is thought to be due to INSUFFFICIENT amounts of SEROTONIN being produced at the SYNAPSE. In ‘NORMAL’ brains, NEUROTRANSMITTERS are CONSTANTLY being RELEASED from the SYNAPSE, stimulating the neighbouring NEURONS. To TERMINATE their action, NEUROTRANSMITTERS are RE-ABSORBED into the SYNAPSE and BROKEN DOWN by an ENZYME, ANTI-DEPRESSANTS work by REDUCING the rate of RE-ABSORPTION, or by BLOCKING the ENZYME that breaks down the NEUROTRANSMITTERS. These mechanisms INCREASE the amount of NEUROTRANSMITTERS AVAILABLE to EXCITE neighbouring cells. The MOST COMMONLY PRESCRIBED ANTI-DEPRESSANTS are SELECTIVE SEROTONIN RE-UPTAKE INHIBITORS (SSRIs) like PROZAC, which work by BLOCKING the TRANSPORTER MECHANISM that RE-ABSORBS SEROTONIN into the PRE-SYNAPTIC CELL AFTER it has FIRED. Hence, MORE SEROTONIN is left in the SYNAPSE, PROLONGING ACTIVITY and making TRANSMISSION of the NEXT IMPULSE easier. IT IS IMPORTANT TO NOTE THAT, in 2017, The BMJ reported that PROZAC does INCREASE the likelihood of SUICIDE + HOMICIDE in some patients.
MAIN COMPONENTS of DRUG THAERAPY:
3. ANTI-ANXIETY
ANXIETY + STRESS are most COMMONLY TREATED with the drug BENZODIAZEPINES (BZs). BZs slow down the activity of GABA ( a NEUROTRANSMITTER that is the body’s natural form of ANXIETY RELIEF). BETA-BLOCKERS (BBs)
are also used to REDUCE ANXIETY, through REDUCING the ACTIVITY of ADRENALINE + NORADRENALINE which are associated with STRESS. BBs BIND to RECEPTORS on the CELLS of the HEART and other parts of the body that are usually stimulated during SYMPATHETIC AROUSAL (fight or flight response). By BLOCKING these RECEPTORS, the HEART beats SLOWER and BLOOD VESSELS do NOT contract SO EASILY. As a result, there is a FALL in BLOOD PRESSURE and thus LESS STRESS on the HEART. This makes people feel CALMER and LESS ANXIOUS.
EVALUATING THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH: TWO STRENGTHS
(+) SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
Explains BEHVAIOUR in terms of the BRAIN, NEUROTRANSMITTERS and BRAIN LOCALISATION. Meaning that BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS have CLEAR VARIABLES that can be MEASURED ,TRACKED and EXAMINED. enabling PSYCHOLOGIATS to CONDUCT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH studying these variables. DRUG THERAPY has IBNVESTIGATED the LINK between DRUGS and the PRODUCTION of CERTAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS and linked this with behaviour. Additionally, RAINE ET AL used PET SCANS to compare 14 AREAS of the BRAIN in MURDERERS (who plead NGRI) and NON-MURDERERS.THESE EXAMPLES fulfil the AIMS of SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH - CONDUCT OBJECTIVE, WELL-CONTROLLED STUDIES and DEMONSTRATE CAUSAL R’SHIPS. THUS a STRENGTH of THIS approach is that it LENDS itself to SCIENTIFIC RESEARCGH that can SUPPORT BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS
(+) SUCCESSFUL APPLICATIONS
RESEARCH into the R’SHIP BETWEEN ABNORMAL LEVELS of NEUROTRANSMITTERS and CRIMINIAL BEHAVIOUR has IMPLIATIONS for OFFERING PHARMARCOLOGICAL TREATMENTS for CRIMINALS, leading to LOWERED RECIDIVISM RATES and ultimately SFAER SOCIETIES. CHEREK ET AL found that MALES with CONDUCT DISORDER and CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR had REDUCED LEVELS of AGGRESSION and IMPULSIVITY AFTER a 21-DAY COURSE of an SSRI ANTI-DEPRESSANT compared to the CONTROL GROUP that took PLACEBOS. This APPROACH has also led to many TREATMENTS for MENTAL DIDORDERS, like DRUG THERAPY and PSYCHOSURGERY. Whilst DRUG THERAPY produces MIXED RESULTS because DRUGS AFFECTS PEOPLE DIFFERENTLY. IT IS A POPULAR TREATMENT as it is EASY and ENABLES MANY PEOPLE with MENTAL DISORDERS to LIVE RELATIVELY NORMAL LIVES outside of MENTAL HOSPITALS. Eg, BIPOLAR DISORDER has been SUCCESSFULLY TREATED with DRUGS, VIGUERA ET AL reported that MORE THAN 60% of BIPOLAR patients IMPROVES when taking LITHIUM.
EVALUATING THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH: TWO WEAKNESSES
(-) REDUCTIONIST APPROACH
This APPROACH REDUCES COMPLEX BEHAVIOUR to SIMPLE EXPLANATIONS, for e.g. IT reduces STRESS to the ACTION of ADRENALINE. Whilst REDUCTIONISM is PART of UNDERSTANDING HOW SYSTEMS WORK, during the process, THERE IS A LOSS OF UNDERTANDING to WHAT IS BEING INVESTIGATED. The BIOLOGICAL APPROACH suggest that SCHIZOPHRENIA is a COMPLEX PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL SYSTEM gone WRONG. LAING sees THIS APPROACH IGNORES the EXPERIENCE of DISTRESS that does with ANY MENTAL ILLNESS and THUS is an INCOMPLETE EXPLANATION.
(-) NATURE RATHER THAN NURTURE
MENTAL ILLNESS has MULTIPLE CAUSES. yet THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH focuses on BIOLOGY (nature), thus IGNORING LIFE EXPERINCES (nurture) and PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS that could equally CONTRIBUTE to MENTAL ILLNESS. For eg, The BIOLOGICAL APPROACH to EXPLAINING SCHIZOPHRENIA is through ABNORMAL LEVELS of CERTAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS rather than HOW PATIENTS FEEL ABOUT THEIR ILLNESS. TREATMENT within this APPROACH is CONCERNED with ADJUSTING the ABNORMAL BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS rather than TALKING TO PATIENTS about HOW THEY FEEL.
CLASSIC EVIDENCE: RAINE ET AL (1997)
METHODOLOGY:
- QUASI EXPEIMENT
- MATCHED PAIRS DESIGN- matched on AGE and SEX
- IV= those who PLEAD NGRI and NON-MURDERERS
- DV= BRAIN F=DIFFERENCES
-PPS= 41 MURDERERS (39 MEN + 2 WOMEN)
-CONTROL GROUP= MATCHED on AGE+ SEX- 6 SCHIZOPHRENICS were MATCHED from MENTAL HOSPITAL.
CLASSIC EVIDENCE: PROCEDURES OF RAINE ET AL (1997)
. OPPORTUNITY SAMPLE was used to OBTAIN the SAMPLE
2. PPS were INJECTED with a ‘TRACER’ (FDG)- made up of RADIOACTIVE GLUCOSE- that is TAKEN UP by ACTIVE AREAS of the BRAIN, which ENABLES researchers to COMPARE BRAIN ACTIVITY of NGRI and CONTROL GROUP.
3. PPS were ASKED to do a CONTINUOUS PERFORMANCE TASK (CPT) which HELPS ACTIVATE TARGET AREAS of the BRAIN.PPS were ABLE to PRACTICE BEFORE BEING INJECTED. This was done 30 SECONDS BEFORE being INJECTED WITH THE TRACER- so that the TASK WOULD NOT BE FDG LABELLED .
4. 32-MINUTES AFTER the FDG INJECTION , a PET SCAN was done, 10 HORIZONTAL SLICES of the BRAIN were RECORDED
5. The ARTICLE provides ACCURATE DETAILS of the SCANNING TECHNIQUES so the RESEARCH COULD BE REPLICATED.
CLASSIC EVIDENCE: RAINE ET AL (1997):
BRAIN DIFFERENCES
THE MURDERERS HAD:
REDUCED ACTIVITY in AREAS of the BRAIN linked to VIOLENCE
ABNORMAL SYMMETRIES: REDUCED activity on the LEFT side of the BRAIN, GREATER ACTIVITY on the RIGHT. APPLIES to areas linked with VIOLENCE- HIPPOCAMPUS, AMYGDALA + THALAMUS.
HOWEVER, there was NO DIFFERNCES in MANY BRAIN STRUCTURES particularly with THOSE ASSOCIATED WITH MENTAL ILLNESS BUT NOT VIOLENCE.
CLASSIC EVIDENCE: RAINE ET AL (1997):
PERFORMANCE ON CPT:
BOTH GROUPS performed SIMILARLY on the CPT. Thus, ANY OBSERVED DIFFERENVES were NOT RELATED to TASK PERFORMANCE.
CLASSIC EVIDENCE: RAINE ET AL (1997)
: OTHER DIFFERENCES NOT CONTROLLED
HEAD INJURY- 23 of the MURDERERS had a HISTORY of HEAD INJURY, BUT their BRAIN ACTIVITY DIDN’T DIFFER from MURDERERS with NO HISTORY of BRAIN INJURY
CLASSIC EVIDENCE: RAINE ET AL (1997): CONCLUSIONS
- EVIDENCE that MURDERERS who plead NGRI had DIFFERENT BRAIN ACTIVITY than ‘NORMAL’ individuals.
- FINDINGS have to be UNDERSTOOD with CAUTION, the NEUTRAL PROCESSES UNDERLYING VIOLENCE ARE COMPLEX and CANNOT BE REDUCED TO A SINGLE MECHANISM
- RAINE ET AL EMPHASISED that it is IMPORTANT to RECOGNOSE that THESE RESULTS do not DEMONSTRATE for eg that MURDERERS who plead NGRI are NOT RESPONSIBLE FOR THEIR ACTIONS, NOR THAT PET SCANS can be USED TO DIAGNOSE VIOLENT INDIVIDUALS.
Brain Localisation explains AGGRESSION
BRAIN LOCALISATION can explain AGGRESSION. This refers to the concept of DIFFERENT AREAS of the BRAIN being RESPONSIBLE for DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS. The CEREBAL CORTEX covers the brain and is DIVIDED into FOUR LOBES. Each LOBE has a NUMBER of FUNCTIONS. The FRONTAL LOBE is involved with our PERSONALITIES: THINKING+CREATIVITY. The PARIETAL LOBE receives SENSORY INFO: TEMPERATURE+TOUCH. The TEMPORAL LOBE is RESPONSIBLE FOR OUR MEMORY+SPEECH and finally the OCCUPITAL LOBE is concerned with RECEIVING INFO DIRECTLY TO OUR EYES. ANY DAMAGE TO SPECIFIC AREAS OF BRAIN MAY AFFECT our behaviour , RAINE’S STUDY OF AGGRESSION explores this. He found that MURDERERS who PLEAD NOT GUILTY FOR REASON of INSANITY had DIFFERENCES in the BRAIN ACTIVITY, which could EXPLAIN their VIOLENT BEHAVIOUR . Murderers had INCREASED activity in the CEREBELLUM and RIGHT HEMISPHERE of their brain. The DOMINANCE of the RIGHT HEMISPHERE (AMYGDALA, THALAMUS + HIPPOCAMPUS) is suggestive of certain behaviours being CONTROLLED by CERTAIN BRIAN LOCATIONS.
