BIOL112 Exam Flashcards
What is a species - scape?
Diagrammatic representation of the animal kingdom and represents how many species contribute to relative diversity, bigger the animal the more they contribute.
What is the order of hierarchical classification? And why do we use binomial nomenclature?
K, P, C, O, F, G, S
We use it to overcome language barriers and to get around general terms.
What is used to make phylogenetic trees?
Morphology and DNA to infer evolutionary story of a group. Close together is closely related.
What is a described species and undescribed species?
Described - formally identified (usually with a scientific paper) with a unique binomial name
Undescribed - informally identified or not yet discovered
How is biodiversity measured?
Using the Shannon diversity score (H) that incorporates richness and relative abundance.
What are biodiversity hotspots?
Where there are a large number of endemic animals and where there are a large number of endangered animals. Typically in the tropics.
What exactly is an animal?
Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embryonic layers - Campbell, always exceptions to rules, most have nervous and muscle tissues and reproduce sexually and undergo a specific process of development, collagen, how genes
Whare are Homeotic genes?
Regulatory genes controlling body plans of all multicellular organisms, contain a homeobox sequence
What sets porifera apart from others on the phylogenetic tree?
No true tissues or organs (No nervous system)
Phylum porifera information (e.g. sponge)
No nervous system, Sessile except when reproducing, body with pores, gelatinous matrix, asexual or sexual reproduction. 3 main groups.
What sets Cnidaria apart from others on the phylogenetic tree?
They have radial symmetry and 2 cell layers. (Echinodermata can also have this by sea stars and sea cucumbers)
What advantage does radial symmetry give?
Equipped to meet environment equally from all sides.
What phylum’s have bilateral symmetry and what is an advantage of this?
platyhelminthes, nematoda, mollusca, annelida, echinodermata?, Arthropoda, chordata. Allow for cephalisation which is an advantage when moving in any one direction
What is gastrolation?
Process by which embryonic tissue layers arise, zygote goes through cleavage and eight cell stage to become a blastula then gastrolation happens and then rise of embryonic cell layers.
What are the names of the 3 primary germ cell layers?
ectoderm (outer), mesoderm (middle), endoderm (inner)
What does the ectoderm form?
Forms epidermis, central nervous system and some glands in endocrine system
What does the endoderm form?
digestive tract and associated organs, reproductive tract, respiratory and excretory
What does the mesoderm form?
skeletal and muscles, circulatory system
Phylum Cnidaria information (E.g. jellyfish)
Diploblastic (no mesoderm and separated by mesoglea), radial symmetry, gastro vascular cavity with one opening, 2 forms which are polyp and medusa, carnivores, capture prey using nematocytes
What type of body cavity does a platyhelminthe have?
acoelomate (without a hollow)
What type of body cavity does a nematode have?
pseudocoelomate - false hollow
What type of body cavity does a annelida have?
coelom - tube within a tube
platyhelminthes information (E.g. flat worm)
Triploblastic, no blood vascular system, good nervous system, one way opening to gut, acoelomate, true muscular system, bilateral symmetry, body flattened dorsoventrally,
Nematoda information (E.g. round worm)
Fluid filled hollow, one way gut with 2 openings, triploblastic,
What phylum’s are coelomates?
annelida, mollusca, Arthropoda, echinodermata, chordata
Annelida information (e.g. bristle worm)
Segmentation, coelom, closed circulatory system, complete digestive and nervous systems
You can only be a protosome if you have a ?
coelom
Difference between protosome and dueterostome? (Rhyme)
Protosome - spiral (cleavage) and determinate, solid masses of mesoderm split and form coelom, mouth develops from blastopore
Deuterostome - radial and indeterminate, folds of out pockets of the archenteron forms coelom, anus develops from blastopore
Phylum Mollusca information (E.g. snail)
Foot and visceral mass covered with mantle, nerve ring around oesophagus, open circulatory system
Phylum Arthropoda information (e.g. bee, spider)
coelomate, protostome, jointed libs, segmentation, hard exoskeleton, open circulatory system, 80% of all animals
Phylum Echinodermata Information (E.g. sea star)
All marine and slow moving, (penta)radial symmetry as adults, endoskeleton, tube feet, ecdysis(shedding)
Phylum Chordata information
Notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, muscular post-anal tail
What is a notochord?
long flexible rod that supplies skeletal support, in most vertebrates it is replaced with a jointed skeleton
What is a dorsal, hollow nerve cord?
develops into CNS, brain and spinal cord
What is a post-anal tail?
often lost during development but when retained it is used for propulsion in most species.
What is pharyngeal slits or clefts?
develop into gill slits or feeding devices in aquatic animals, in tetrapods they develop into parts of their ear an other structures in the head.
Urochordates (invertebrate vertebrates)
sea squirts, tunicates, has siphons
Vertebrata (Chordata)
includes hagfish (no jaw and no vertebrae), lampreys (no jaw but yes vertebrae)
Chondrichthyes
chordata (sharks, skates, rays), no swim bladder, cartilaginous skeleton, 5-7 gill slits
Amphibia
Ectothermic, moist skin with mucus glands, Chordata, no scales, development through larval stage, tetrapods
Reptilia
Chordata, tetrapoda, amniotes, ectothermic, dry skin with scales, no larval stage, lungs, (birds are included in this but they are endothermic)
Mammalia
Chordata, tetrapods, amniotic, endothermic, mammary glands, well developed cerebrum, body covered with hair, within mammals there is monotremes (egg laying and no nipples) and marsupials (pouch) and eutherians (placental)
Reason for major historical decline in biodiversity?
Humans being introduced to megafauna too quickly for it to adapt.
4 major threats to biodiversity?
- Habitat loss and fragmentation (agriculture, urban development, forestry, mining, 73% of species extinction in the last 200 years) 2. Introduced species 3. Over harvesting (ivory trade, unregulated fishing 4. Global Change (acidic precipitation due to fossil fuels burned)
How do we determine the value of a species?
EDGE Score, evolutionary distinct and globally endangered - measure of irreplaceability
Why should biodiversity be of concern? 5 reasons
- Moral and ethical obligations (generation to come) 2. Organisms bring pleasure (pets, zoos, aquariums) 3. Species can be useful (for medicines, jobs) 4. Ecosystem services (purifies air and water, rivet hypothesis - don’t know what’s important until its gone) 5. Measure of using the planet sustainability (we depend on biodiversity for everything)
What are the 2 main approaches for conservation at the population and species level?
small vulnerable population, rapidly declining population
What is the extinction vortex?
Mainly ties in with small population, small numbers mean inbreeding and genetic drift, this means loss of genetic variability resulting in lower individual fitness so cannot adapt, then there is lower reproduction and higher mortality so smaller population, vortex starts again and more you are down it the faster the events occur.
What is the small population approach? Include case study
Small populations and low genetic diversity don’t always led to extinction, northern elephant seals were reduced to only 20 individuals in the 1980s and habitats were restored and conservation money was put into them, hunting them was banned, they rebounded to 150,000 today, conservation deans on the minimum viable population size (MVP), current genetic population will have low genetic diversity because of stemming from low amount of individuals.
What is the declining population approach? Include case study
Need to study the natural history (bigger picture) of the declining species and evaluate the causes of the decline, two thirds of the world population of Bengal Floridian live on Tonle Sap lake floodplain, turns out they need 2 habitats (floodplain and bush next to floodplain), in dry season would go on floodplain for breeding then in wet season go into bush, a herbivore ate the scrub and kept the floodplain but they got hunted so farmers kept it in check, rice production caused the decline of population because floodplain was underwater all year around so couldn’t breed, needed to be made how it used to be
Explain 6 conversation methods
control invasive ‘alien’ species (take out bad plants disrupting environment, rodent traps), creation of protected areas and preserving hotspots, translocations and reintroductions (ulva island predator free), captive breeding (tuatara in Invercargill), increase public awareness (ecotourism), habitat restoration (Seaweed)
What is urban ecology?
examine organisms and their environment in urban areas, more than half the worlds population in urban areas, balance species preservation with the needs of people (Otago did bells on cats collars)
Why is understanding evolution important?
Medicine (natural selection of bacteria), agriculture (variance of genomes), conservation
What are the 4 main facts of evolutions? And which are micro or macro evolution
- Direct observations of evolutionary change - small changes within a pop/species 2. Homologous - present patterns to infer processes in the past, so homologous structures (different functions but same bones because adapted to environment) 3. Fossil record - evidence of gradual change 4. Biogeography - scientific study of geographic distributions of species past and present (look different in different places but same species, Darwin’s finches) First one is micro evolution and other 3 are macro evolution.
What is the technical definition of evolution? And what is Darwins definition?
Technical - change in the (genetic) composition of a population from generation to generation
Darwin - descent with modification
What 4 things are needed for natural selection?
Variation, selection, heredity, time
What is selected ‘for’ and what is selected ‘of’ in respect to natural selection?
selected FOR phenotypic attributes, CAUSES differential survival and reproductive success - selection OF genotypes form one generation to the next, allows phenotypes to be rebuilt each generation
What is sexual selection?
traits that improve mating chances only, if a individual gets the chance to, arises from variance in mating success
What is inter-sexual selection?
Mate choice, usually females choice, like songs and displays
What is intra-sexual selection?
Competition, usually male to male, body size and weapons
What happens with natural vs sexual selection?
traits favoured by sexual selection are often selected against by natural selection
What is a species? BSC Concept And problems with this concept
Latin word is kind, based on differences in morphology and genetics. Biological Species Concept - common gene pool, interbreed, produce fertile offspring and don’t normally mate with other species in the wild, reproductively isolated. Problems is can’t use for extinct forms or asexual organisms.
How is interbreeding prevented?
Prezygotic barriers- habitat isolation, temporal isolation (length of life), behavioural isolation (unique courtship displays) (first 3 stop mating attempt), mechanical isolation, gametic isolation (recognition by eggs and sperm). Postzygotic barriers - reduced hybrid variability (don’t go on to survive), reduced hybrid fertility (like a mule, sterile), hybrid breakdown (F2 generation is mucked up)
What is a sub-species?
distinct morphologically and/or genetically but similar enough so that they can potentially interbreed. Like tomtits with 5 sub-species, different islands
What is the morphological species concept?
characterises species by body shape and other structural features.
What is the ecological species concept?
views a species in terms of its ecological niche
What is the phylogenetic species concept (PSC)?
smallest group of individuals that share a common ancestor and therefore have a unique genetic history, compare gene sequences and morphology
What 2 ways do new species arise?
Allopathic speciation - geographic barrier forms so populations become divergent enough that they can become different species. Sympatric speciation - same geographic range but different mutations, prezygotic or postzygotic isolation mechanisms can influence events
Convergence results in what type of traits
Analogous, different structure but similar functions
Divergence results in what type of traits
Homologous
what do branch lengths indicate on phylogenetic trees?
genetic change, long=more change, time
summarise the timing of major events in the history of life
Start of the paleozoic during the Cambrian there was ‘explosion of life’, majority of phyla originated during that period, 540mya
Colonisation of land by animals, ordovican
Devonian, first tetrapods
End of Cretaceous many became extinct
Palaeocene, major radiation of animals
Explain the evolutionary importance of mass extinctions
Diversification of life, when a species disappears niches open for other organisms to exploit which leads to natural selection, following mass extinctions there is a sharp rise in predators in fossil record so prey evolves counter adaptations, adaptive radiation
Infer, using biogeography and speciation, why NZ has almost no native land mammals
continental drift ended up with allopatric speciation, no has been isolated for 65my, isolated prior to radiation of the mammals so we have lack of terrestrial mammals, we only have 2 bat which would have flown here
What is physiology?
a science interested in how and why, function
Do smaller or larger cells have a larger surface area:volume ratio
Smaller
What is bioenergetics?
overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal, determine nutritional needs and impacted by animals size, activity, and environment
Definition of metabolism
sum of an organisms chemical reactions
What would you call : energy containing molecules from food used to make ATP, which powers cellular work
Catabolism
What would you call: after the needs of staying alive are met, remaining food molecules can be used in biosynthesis
anabolism
Types of ingestion/feeding
Bulk, filter, fluid, substrate
Explain digestion
Brea down molecules into smaller components, proteins breach down to amino acids, nucleic acids broken down into nucleotides and components, mechanical and chemical processes used like stomach acid and enzymes in intestines
How do sponges get nutrients if they have no digestive system?
food particles get trapped in collar of choanocytes, food particles brought into cell by phagocytosis and liquid by pinocytosis, food particles broken down intracellularly by lysosomes
Nonmammalian vertebrates have what teeth?
less specialised, more uniform
Describe a carnivores stomach
Large, expandable and protein is reasonably easy to digest so short intestines
Describe a herbivore and omnivores stomach
Longer alimentary canals than carnivores, need longer to digest vegetation and absorb nutrient molecules
Where does most digestion and absorption happen?
In the small intestine
Describe the process of osmosis as it related to the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane
Diffusion, solute concentration determines movement, less to more concentrated
Outline the differences between the strategies of osmoconformers and osmoregulaters with examples
Osmoconformers - do not actively adjust their internal osmoregularity, body fluid same as surroundings, all marine mammals, HAGFISH
Osmoregulators - most marine vertebrates, all freshwater animals, controls movement of solute and water between internal fluids and external environment, requires energy, permits animals to live in a variety of habitats
Define osmoregualtion
The regulation of solute concentrations and water balance by a cell or organism
Define stenohaline
Tolerance, cannot tolerate substantial changes in external osmolarity
Define euryhaline
tolerance, can survive large changes in external osmolarity
Outline how osmoregulation is achieved in a saltwater fish, cartilaginous fish and a freshwater teleost
saltwater - exception of salt ions from gills and from kidneys, osmotic water loss through gills, challenges are loss of water from body fluid and uptake of salts
Teleost - constantly lose water by osmosis, balance it by drinking and excreting urine, specialised cells in gills get rid of salts
Cartilaginous fish - body fluid salt conc less than water, retain urea within blood
Outline the evolutionary adaptations involved in maintaining the osmotic balance of animals on land
Live in dehydrating environment, protective outer layers, drinking and eating moist foods, cellular respiration, excretory systems that conserve water, behavioural adaptations
Describe the main excretory systems found in different phyla
Ammonia, urea, Uric acid
Filtration, modification (secretion, reabsoprtion), excretion
What are the advantages and disadvantages of water and of air as a respiratory media?
getting O2 from water requires greater efficiency than air breathing
Describe specialised structures used by different animals to extract oxygen from the media they live in
gills (counter current exchange), tracheael (insects, network of branching tubes), lungs, body surface, bird lungs more effiecnt and complex than mammals
Outline the differences between open and closed circulatory systems
open - lower hydrostatic pressure, less costly, circulatory fluid is continuous with the fluid surrounding all body cells
Closed - high blood pressure, effective delivery of O2 and nutrients, redistribution of blood to different organs
Compare and contrast circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, and mammals/birds
Single (marine) VS double circulation (mammals, amphibians, reptiles)
Single is 2 chambered heart and flows through heart once, double is 3 or 4 and flows through heart twice and is more efficient at supplying oxygen
Describe the 2 ways a nervous system can interact with the environment
controls muscles and glands for digesting
Sort the sequential processes of signal propagation in neurons LABEL diagram of a neuron in ya book
Look in ur book
Explain and provide examples for the statement:
Nervous systems encode information in action potentials
Sensory neurons transmit information about external stimuli in form of action potentials, inter neurons integrate the information (internal state, hunger), efferent neurons transmit action potentials to muscle (gland) cells causing them to contract (secrete)
Identity of of a stimulus is encoded by the identity of those 3 types
What does a dendrite do?
major site of synaptic input from other neurons
The neuronal cell body is a site of?
integration of synaptic potentials
What is an axon?
conduction component, propagating action potentials to axon terminals
What happens at the presynaptic terminals?
Output of neuron can alter activities of other cells
How is an action potential generated and ended?
Before an action potential most voltage gated sodium and potassium channels are closed, then NA+ opens first, when becomes more positive more opens, self sustaining process, then NA+ channels become inactivated, K+ channels still open then a refractory period
How is an action potential conducted along an axon
inwards current of NA+ depolarises membrane and triggers action potential, depolarisation spreads to the RIGHT, outward current of K+ repolarises the membrane (moves right again)
What happens when 2 action potentials collide?
inactivated NA+ channels behind the zone of depolarisation prevent the action potential from travelling backwards
Inactivated NA+ channels behind the zone of depolarisation causes cancellation of colliding action potentials
How does a chemical synapse work?
- Synthesis and packaging neurotransmitter in synaptic vesicles
- Action potential causes CA+ influx which triggers fusion of the vesicle with the presynaptic membrane ->neurotransmitter release
- Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and activated receptor in postsynaptic cell (natural venoms often block synaptic transmission like Botox
A chemical synapse can be excitatory ( little bump up on graph) or inhibitory (little bump down on graph)
How is a reflex produced?
- Stretching of a leg extensor muscle activates a muscle spindle stretch receptor
- The sensory neuron of the stretch receptor synapses on motor neurons (E) to the same muscle
- Motor neuron action potentials excite extensor muscle fibres, causing contraction
- The stretch receptor sensory neuron also activates inhibitory interneurons that inhibit the motor neurons (F) to antagonistic muscle fibres
How is a rhythmic behaviour produced?
A rhythmic behaviour is a stereotyped, repetitive sequences of muscle activity, produced independently of the brain
2 mechanisms of terminating synaptic transmission
enzymatic breakdown of neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft, reuptake of neurotransmitter by presynaptic neuron
Explain the function of the lateral line system
To be able to feel and follow a hydrodynamic wake, used for orientation and hunting
Explain how the lateral line system works
The capula (jelly like sheath for sensory hairs) serves as a bio mechanical interface and bridges boundary layer, water flow moves the capula and sensory hairs so the nerve fibre feels it and action potentials are generated
Explain the general function of sensory organs
To convert a sensory stimulus to an electrical signal in the nervous system (sensory transduction)
Explain sensory transduction and sort its sequential process
Convert a sensory stimulus into a electrical signal in the nervous system
What do olfactory receptors do?
convert odorant binding into a change in membrane potential (sensory transduction)
What does odorant binding induce?
conformational changes and opens the ion channels of olfactory receptors
What are the 4 invertebrate examples of asexual reproduction?
Budding (buds pinch off from parent), fission (parents split equally in 2), fragmentation and regeneration, pathogenesis (eggs develop into new individuals without being fertilised)
What is hermaphroditism?
Each individual has both female and male reproductive systems, simultaneous ones have both at same time and sequential are both sexes at different times
What is oviparity?
egg laying
What is viviparity?
live birth, evolved from oviparity
What is a hormone?
a signalling molecule from the endocrine system
What is the endocrine system?
System/network of tissues and glands that regulate aspects of an animals biology through the release of hormones
Key examples of vertebrate endocrine glands
Pituitary gland (master gland), pancreas, liver, brain, gastrointestinal tract, heart
Steroid hormones are what type of molecules and made from what?
lipid molecules and made from cholesterol
Hormones are derived from?
Amino acids like peptides, proteins, amines
Where are receptors for peptide and steroid molecules located?
peptide - cell membrane
Steroid - mostly inside the cell inside cytoplasm or nucleus
What are the three types of sex accessory exocrine glands?
Seminal vesicles (2), prostate gland (1), bulbourethral glands (2)
Secretions are collectively ? And contain ?
alkaline, contain nutrients, coagulant and atiocoagulent enzymes, mucus
Secretion of sex accessory glands and sperm =
semen
Meiosis produces ? Gametes
haploid
What are environmental estrogens (EE)?
foreign substances from the environment absorbed by the body that mimic or alter the action of natural estrogens in the body, example of EDC (endocrine disrupting chemical)
What are the main causes of the amphibian extinction crisis?
pollution like atrazine which effects chemical castration and feminisation at extremely low doses
Alligator: the lake apopka story
chemical spill effected genetalia in young ones, so low hatching rates and high juvenile mortality
What is a proximate question?
how does the behaviour happen?
What is a ultimate question?
why does the behaviour happen?
What are Tinbergens 4 questions?
- What stimulus triggers it and anatomical mechanisms lead to the response?
- How does animals experience between growth ad development affect it?
- How does the behaviour aid survival an reproduction?
- What is the evolutionary history behind that behaviour?
What is a fixed action pattern?
innate, behavioural response to well defined stimuli, adaptive
What is spatial learning?
using natural variations in the environment to locate nest
What is associative learning?
association between 2 stimuli or a behaviour and stimulus
What is operant conditioning?
associative learning, a voluntary behaviour tat is reinforced or punished which results in altered probability of the behaviour reoccurring
What is cognition and problem solving?
process of knowing that involves awareness, reasoning, recollection and judgement
Kinesis
No specific direction, not an orientated movement
Difference between circadian rhythm, circannual rhythm, circatidal rhythm
Circadian - daily
Circannual - annual
Circatidal - tides
Case study: pukekos
Social hierarchy - ethogram defined
Ethogram - head flick, pecking, charging, fighting
What is kin selection?
evolutionary effect of both parental aid given to offspring and altruism to relatives other than offspring
What is Hamiltons rule?
rB>C
What is Hymenoptera?
insect order that includes ants bees and wasps
Define eusociality
Overlap of generation, reproductive devision of labour, cooperative brood care
Intra-sexual selection
Competition within one sex for access to members of opposite sex
Inter-sexual selection
Choice by individuals of one sex for particular members of opposite sex
Differences in reproductive rate for females and males
Females - limited by resources
Males - limited by access to females
Give an example of sex role reverse and what they are limited by
Pipefish
Males limited by size of their brood pouch
Females limited by access to males
What’s the difference between polygyny and polyandry ?
polygyny - single male mate with many females
Polyandry - single female mates with many males
Difference between pheromones and allomones
P - intra specific (sex, aggregation, trail, alarm)
A - inter specific (allomones + emitter, kairomones +receptor)
