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BIOL112 > BIOL112 Exam > Flashcards

BIOL112 Exam Flashcards

1
Q

What is a species - scape?

A

Diagrammatic representation of the animal kingdom and represents how many species contribute to relative diversity, bigger the animal the more they contribute.

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2
Q

What is the order of hierarchical classification? And why do we use binomial nomenclature?

A

K, P, C, O, F, G, S
We use it to overcome language barriers and to get around general terms.

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3
Q

What is used to make phylogenetic trees?

A

Morphology and DNA to infer evolutionary story of a group. Close together is closely related.

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4
Q

What is a described species and undescribed species?

A

Described - formally identified (usually with a scientific paper) with a unique binomial name
Undescribed - informally identified or not yet discovered

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5
Q

How is biodiversity measured?

A

Using the Shannon diversity score (H) that incorporates richness and relative abundance.

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6
Q

What are biodiversity hotspots?

A

Where there are a large number of endemic animals and where there are a large number of endangered animals. Typically in the tropics.

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7
Q

What exactly is an animal?

A

Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embryonic layers - Campbell, always exceptions to rules, most have nervous and muscle tissues and reproduce sexually and undergo a specific process of development, collagen, how genes

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8
Q

Whare are Homeotic genes?

A

Regulatory genes controlling body plans of all multicellular organisms, contain a homeobox sequence

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9
Q

What sets porifera apart from others on the phylogenetic tree?

A

No true tissues or organs (No nervous system)

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10
Q

Phylum porifera information (e.g. sponge)

A

No nervous system, Sessile except when reproducing, body with pores, gelatinous matrix, asexual or sexual reproduction. 3 main groups.

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11
Q

What sets Cnidaria apart from others on the phylogenetic tree?

A

They have radial symmetry and 2 cell layers. (Echinodermata can also have this by sea stars and sea cucumbers)

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12
Q

What advantage does radial symmetry give?

A

Equipped to meet environment equally from all sides.

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13
Q

What phylum’s have bilateral symmetry and what is an advantage of this?

A

platyhelminthes, nematoda, mollusca, annelida, echinodermata?, Arthropoda, chordata. Allow for cephalisation which is an advantage when moving in any one direction

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14
Q

What is gastrolation?

A

Process by which embryonic tissue layers arise, zygote goes through cleavage and eight cell stage to become a blastula then gastrolation happens and then rise of embryonic cell layers.

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15
Q

What are the names of the 3 primary germ cell layers?

A

ectoderm (outer), mesoderm (middle), endoderm (inner)

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16
Q

What does the ectoderm form?

A

Forms epidermis, central nervous system and some glands in endocrine system

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17
Q

What does the endoderm form?

A

digestive tract and associated organs, reproductive tract, respiratory and excretory

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18
Q

What does the mesoderm form?

A

skeletal and muscles, circulatory system

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19
Q

Phylum Cnidaria information (E.g. jellyfish)

A

Diploblastic (no mesoderm and separated by mesoglea), radial symmetry, gastro vascular cavity with one opening, 2 forms which are polyp and medusa, carnivores, capture prey using nematocytes

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20
Q

What type of body cavity does a platyhelminthe have?

A

acoelomate (without a hollow)

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21
Q

What type of body cavity does a nematode have?

A

pseudocoelomate - false hollow

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22
Q

What type of body cavity does a annelida have?

A

coelom - tube within a tube

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23
Q

platyhelminthes information (E.g. flat worm)

A

Triploblastic, no blood vascular system, good nervous system, one way opening to gut, acoelomate, true muscular system, bilateral symmetry, body flattened dorsoventrally,

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24
Q

Nematoda information (E.g. round worm)

A

Fluid filled hollow, one way gut with 2 openings, triploblastic,

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25
Q

What phylum’s are coelomates?

A

annelida, mollusca, Arthropoda, echinodermata, chordata

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26
Q

Annelida information (e.g. bristle worm)

A

Segmentation, coelom, closed circulatory system, complete digestive and nervous systems

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27
Q

You can only be a protosome if you have a ?

A

coelom

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28
Q

Difference between protosome and dueterostome? (Rhyme)

A

Protosome - spiral (cleavage) and determinate, solid masses of mesoderm split and form coelom, mouth develops from blastopore
Deuterostome - radial and indeterminate, folds of out pockets of the archenteron forms coelom, anus develops from blastopore

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29
Q

Phylum Mollusca information (E.g. snail)

A

Foot and visceral mass covered with mantle, nerve ring around oesophagus, open circulatory system

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30
Q

Phylum Arthropoda information (e.g. bee, spider)

A

coelomate, protostome, jointed libs, segmentation, hard exoskeleton, open circulatory system, 80% of all animals

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31
Q

Phylum Echinodermata Information (E.g. sea star)

A

All marine and slow moving, (penta)radial symmetry as adults, endoskeleton, tube feet, ecdysis(shedding)

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32
Q

Phylum Chordata information

A

Notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, muscular post-anal tail

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33
Q

What is a notochord?

A

long flexible rod that supplies skeletal support, in most vertebrates it is replaced with a jointed skeleton

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34
Q

What is a dorsal, hollow nerve cord?

A

develops into CNS, brain and spinal cord

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35
Q

What is a post-anal tail?

A

often lost during development but when retained it is used for propulsion in most species.

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36
Q

What is pharyngeal slits or clefts?

A

develop into gill slits or feeding devices in aquatic animals, in tetrapods they develop into parts of their ear an other structures in the head.

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37
Q

Urochordates (invertebrate vertebrates)

A

sea squirts, tunicates, has siphons

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38
Q

Vertebrata (Chordata)

A

includes hagfish (no jaw and no vertebrae), lampreys (no jaw but yes vertebrae)

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39
Q

Chondrichthyes

A

chordata (sharks, skates, rays), no swim bladder, cartilaginous skeleton, 5-7 gill slits

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40
Q

Amphibia

A

Ectothermic, moist skin with mucus glands, Chordata, no scales, development through larval stage, tetrapods

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41
Q

Reptilia

A

Chordata, tetrapoda, amniotes, ectothermic, dry skin with scales, no larval stage, lungs, (birds are included in this but they are endothermic)

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42
Q

Mammalia

A

Chordata, tetrapods, amniotic, endothermic, mammary glands, well developed cerebrum, body covered with hair, within mammals there is monotremes (egg laying and no nipples) and marsupials (pouch) and eutherians (placental)

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43
Q

Reason for major historical decline in biodiversity?

A

Humans being introduced to megafauna too quickly for it to adapt.

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44
Q

4 major threats to biodiversity?

A
  1. Habitat loss and fragmentation (agriculture, urban development, forestry, mining, 73% of species extinction in the last 200 years) 2. Introduced species 3. Over harvesting (ivory trade, unregulated fishing 4. Global Change (acidic precipitation due to fossil fuels burned)
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45
Q

How do we determine the value of a species?

A

EDGE Score, evolutionary distinct and globally endangered - measure of irreplaceability

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46
Q

Why should biodiversity be of concern? 5 reasons

A
  1. Moral and ethical obligations (generation to come) 2. Organisms bring pleasure (pets, zoos, aquariums) 3. Species can be useful (for medicines, jobs) 4. Ecosystem services (purifies air and water, rivet hypothesis - don’t know what’s important until its gone) 5. Measure of using the planet sustainability (we depend on biodiversity for everything)
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47
Q

What are the 2 main approaches for conservation at the population and species level?

A

small vulnerable population, rapidly declining population

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48
Q

What is the extinction vortex?

A

Mainly ties in with small population, small numbers mean inbreeding and genetic drift, this means loss of genetic variability resulting in lower individual fitness so cannot adapt, then there is lower reproduction and higher mortality so smaller population, vortex starts again and more you are down it the faster the events occur.

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49
Q

What is the small population approach? Include case study

A

Small populations and low genetic diversity don’t always led to extinction, northern elephant seals were reduced to only 20 individuals in the 1980s and habitats were restored and conservation money was put into them, hunting them was banned, they rebounded to 150,000 today, conservation deans on the minimum viable population size (MVP), current genetic population will have low genetic diversity because of stemming from low amount of individuals.

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50
Q

What is the declining population approach? Include case study

A

Need to study the natural history (bigger picture) of the declining species and evaluate the causes of the decline, two thirds of the world population of Bengal Floridian live on Tonle Sap lake floodplain, turns out they need 2 habitats (floodplain and bush next to floodplain), in dry season would go on floodplain for breeding then in wet season go into bush, a herbivore ate the scrub and kept the floodplain but they got hunted so farmers kept it in check, rice production caused the decline of population because floodplain was underwater all year around so couldn’t breed, needed to be made how it used to be

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51
Q

Explain 6 conversation methods

A

control invasive ‘alien’ species (take out bad plants disrupting environment, rodent traps), creation of protected areas and preserving hotspots, translocations and reintroductions (ulva island predator free), captive breeding (tuatara in Invercargill), increase public awareness (ecotourism), habitat restoration (Seaweed)

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52
Q

What is urban ecology?

A

examine organisms and their environment in urban areas, more than half the worlds population in urban areas, balance species preservation with the needs of people (Otago did bells on cats collars)

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53
Q

Why is understanding evolution important?

A

Medicine (natural selection of bacteria), agriculture (variance of genomes), conservation

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54
Q

What are the 4 main facts of evolutions? And which are micro or macro evolution

A
  1. Direct observations of evolutionary change - small changes within a pop/species 2. Homologous - present patterns to infer processes in the past, so homologous structures (different functions but same bones because adapted to environment) 3. Fossil record - evidence of gradual change 4. Biogeography - scientific study of geographic distributions of species past and present (look different in different places but same species, Darwin’s finches) First one is micro evolution and other 3 are macro evolution.
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55
Q

What is the technical definition of evolution? And what is Darwins definition?

A

Technical - change in the (genetic) composition of a population from generation to generation
Darwin - descent with modification

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56
Q

What 4 things are needed for natural selection?

A

Variation, selection, heredity, time

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57
Q

What is selected ‘for’ and what is selected ‘of’ in respect to natural selection?

A

selected FOR phenotypic attributes, CAUSES differential survival and reproductive success - selection OF genotypes form one generation to the next, allows phenotypes to be rebuilt each generation

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58
Q

What is sexual selection?

A

traits that improve mating chances only, if a individual gets the chance to, arises from variance in mating success

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59
Q

What is inter-sexual selection?

A

Mate choice, usually females choice, like songs and displays

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60
Q

What is intra-sexual selection?

A

Competition, usually male to male, body size and weapons

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61
Q

What happens with natural vs sexual selection?

A

traits favoured by sexual selection are often selected against by natural selection

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62
Q

What is a species? BSC Concept And problems with this concept

A

Latin word is kind, based on differences in morphology and genetics. Biological Species Concept - common gene pool, interbreed, produce fertile offspring and don’t normally mate with other species in the wild, reproductively isolated. Problems is can’t use for extinct forms or asexual organisms.

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63
Q

How is interbreeding prevented?

A

Prezygotic barriers- habitat isolation, temporal isolation (length of life), behavioural isolation (unique courtship displays) (first 3 stop mating attempt), mechanical isolation, gametic isolation (recognition by eggs and sperm). Postzygotic barriers - reduced hybrid variability (don’t go on to survive), reduced hybrid fertility (like a mule, sterile), hybrid breakdown (F2 generation is mucked up)

64
Q

What is a sub-species?

A

distinct morphologically and/or genetically but similar enough so that they can potentially interbreed. Like tomtits with 5 sub-species, different islands

65
Q

What is the morphological species concept?

A

characterises species by body shape and other structural features.

66
Q

What is the ecological species concept?

A

views a species in terms of its ecological niche

67
Q

What is the phylogenetic species concept (PSC)?

A

smallest group of individuals that share a common ancestor and therefore have a unique genetic history, compare gene sequences and morphology

68
Q

What 2 ways do new species arise?

A

Allopathic speciation - geographic barrier forms so populations become divergent enough that they can become different species. Sympatric speciation - same geographic range but different mutations, prezygotic or postzygotic isolation mechanisms can influence events

69
Q

Convergence results in what type of traits

A

Analogous, different structure but similar functions

70
Q

Divergence results in what type of traits

A

Homologous

71
Q

what do branch lengths indicate on phylogenetic trees?

A

genetic change, long=more change, time

72
Q

summarise the timing of major events in the history of life

A

Start of the paleozoic during the Cambrian there was ‘explosion of life’, majority of phyla originated during that period, 540mya
Colonisation of land by animals, ordovican
Devonian, first tetrapods
End of Cretaceous many became extinct
Palaeocene, major radiation of animals

73
Q

Explain the evolutionary importance of mass extinctions

A

Diversification of life, when a species disappears niches open for other organisms to exploit which leads to natural selection, following mass extinctions there is a sharp rise in predators in fossil record so prey evolves counter adaptations, adaptive radiation

74
Q

Infer, using biogeography and speciation, why NZ has almost no native land mammals

A

continental drift ended up with allopatric speciation, no has been isolated for 65my, isolated prior to radiation of the mammals so we have lack of terrestrial mammals, we only have 2 bat which would have flown here

75
Q

What is physiology?

A

a science interested in how and why, function

76
Q

Do smaller or larger cells have a larger surface area:volume ratio

A

Smaller

77
Q

What is bioenergetics?

A

overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal, determine nutritional needs and impacted by animals size, activity, and environment

78
Q

Definition of metabolism

A

sum of an organisms chemical reactions

79
Q

What would you call : energy containing molecules from food used to make ATP, which powers cellular work

A

Catabolism

80
Q

What would you call: after the needs of staying alive are met, remaining food molecules can be used in biosynthesis

A

anabolism

81
Q

Types of ingestion/feeding

A

Bulk, filter, fluid, substrate

82
Q

Explain digestion

A

Brea down molecules into smaller components, proteins breach down to amino acids, nucleic acids broken down into nucleotides and components, mechanical and chemical processes used like stomach acid and enzymes in intestines

83
Q

How do sponges get nutrients if they have no digestive system?

A

food particles get trapped in collar of choanocytes, food particles brought into cell by phagocytosis and liquid by pinocytosis, food particles broken down intracellularly by lysosomes

84
Q

Nonmammalian vertebrates have what teeth?

A

less specialised, more uniform

85
Q

Describe a carnivores stomach

A

Large, expandable and protein is reasonably easy to digest so short intestines

86
Q

Describe a herbivore and omnivores stomach

A

Longer alimentary canals than carnivores, need longer to digest vegetation and absorb nutrient molecules

87
Q

Where does most digestion and absorption happen?

A

In the small intestine

88
Q

Describe the process of osmosis as it related to the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane

A

Diffusion, solute concentration determines movement, less to more concentrated

89
Q

Outline the differences between the strategies of osmoconformers and osmoregulaters with examples

A

Osmoconformers - do not actively adjust their internal osmoregularity, body fluid same as surroundings, all marine mammals, HAGFISH
Osmoregulators - most marine vertebrates, all freshwater animals, controls movement of solute and water between internal fluids and external environment, requires energy, permits animals to live in a variety of habitats

90
Q

Define osmoregualtion

A

The regulation of solute concentrations and water balance by a cell or organism

91
Q

Define stenohaline

A

Tolerance, cannot tolerate substantial changes in external osmolarity

92
Q

Define euryhaline

A

tolerance, can survive large changes in external osmolarity

93
Q

Outline how osmoregulation is achieved in a saltwater fish, cartilaginous fish and a freshwater teleost

A

saltwater - exception of salt ions from gills and from kidneys, osmotic water loss through gills, challenges are loss of water from body fluid and uptake of salts
Teleost - constantly lose water by osmosis, balance it by drinking and excreting urine, specialised cells in gills get rid of salts
Cartilaginous fish - body fluid salt conc less than water, retain urea within blood

94
Q

Outline the evolutionary adaptations involved in maintaining the osmotic balance of animals on land

A

Live in dehydrating environment, protective outer layers, drinking and eating moist foods, cellular respiration, excretory systems that conserve water, behavioural adaptations

95
Q

Describe the main excretory systems found in different phyla

A

Ammonia, urea, Uric acid
Filtration, modification (secretion, reabsoprtion), excretion

96
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of water and of air as a respiratory media?

A

getting O2 from water requires greater efficiency than air breathing

97
Q

Describe specialised structures used by different animals to extract oxygen from the media they live in

A

gills (counter current exchange), tracheael (insects, network of branching tubes), lungs, body surface, bird lungs more effiecnt and complex than mammals

98
Q

Outline the differences between open and closed circulatory systems

A

open - lower hydrostatic pressure, less costly, circulatory fluid is continuous with the fluid surrounding all body cells
Closed - high blood pressure, effective delivery of O2 and nutrients, redistribution of blood to different organs

99
Q

Compare and contrast circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, and mammals/birds

A

Single (marine) VS double circulation (mammals, amphibians, reptiles)
Single is 2 chambered heart and flows through heart once, double is 3 or 4 and flows through heart twice and is more efficient at supplying oxygen

100
Q

Describe the 2 ways a nervous system can interact with the environment

A

controls muscles and glands for digesting

101
Q

Sort the sequential processes of signal propagation in neurons LABEL diagram of a neuron in ya book

A

Look in ur book

102
Q

Explain and provide examples for the statement:
Nervous systems encode information in action potentials

A

Sensory neurons transmit information about external stimuli in form of action potentials, inter neurons integrate the information (internal state, hunger), efferent neurons transmit action potentials to muscle (gland) cells causing them to contract (secrete)
Identity of of a stimulus is encoded by the identity of those 3 types

103
Q

What does a dendrite do?

A

major site of synaptic input from other neurons

104
Q

The neuronal cell body is a site of?

A

integration of synaptic potentials

105
Q

What is an axon?

A

conduction component, propagating action potentials to axon terminals

106
Q

What happens at the presynaptic terminals?

A

Output of neuron can alter activities of other cells

107
Q

How is an action potential generated and ended?

A

Before an action potential most voltage gated sodium and potassium channels are closed, then NA+ opens first, when becomes more positive more opens, self sustaining process, then NA+ channels become inactivated, K+ channels still open then a refractory period

108
Q

How is an action potential conducted along an axon

A

inwards current of NA+ depolarises membrane and triggers action potential, depolarisation spreads to the RIGHT, outward current of K+ repolarises the membrane (moves right again)

109
Q

What happens when 2 action potentials collide?

A

inactivated NA+ channels behind the zone of depolarisation prevent the action potential from travelling backwards
Inactivated NA+ channels behind the zone of depolarisation causes cancellation of colliding action potentials

110
Q

How does a chemical synapse work?

A
  1. Synthesis and packaging neurotransmitter in synaptic vesicles
  2. Action potential causes CA+ influx which triggers fusion of the vesicle with the presynaptic membrane ->neurotransmitter release
  3. Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and activated receptor in postsynaptic cell (natural venoms often block synaptic transmission like Botox
    A chemical synapse can be excitatory ( little bump up on graph) or inhibitory (little bump down on graph)
111
Q

How is a reflex produced?

A
  1. Stretching of a leg extensor muscle activates a muscle spindle stretch receptor
  2. The sensory neuron of the stretch receptor synapses on motor neurons (E) to the same muscle
  3. Motor neuron action potentials excite extensor muscle fibres, causing contraction
  4. The stretch receptor sensory neuron also activates inhibitory interneurons that inhibit the motor neurons (F) to antagonistic muscle fibres
112
Q

How is a rhythmic behaviour produced?

A

A rhythmic behaviour is a stereotyped, repetitive sequences of muscle activity, produced independently of the brain

113
Q

2 mechanisms of terminating synaptic transmission

A

enzymatic breakdown of neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft, reuptake of neurotransmitter by presynaptic neuron

114
Q

Explain the function of the lateral line system

A

To be able to feel and follow a hydrodynamic wake, used for orientation and hunting

115
Q

Explain how the lateral line system works

A

The capula (jelly like sheath for sensory hairs) serves as a bio mechanical interface and bridges boundary layer, water flow moves the capula and sensory hairs so the nerve fibre feels it and action potentials are generated

116
Q

Explain the general function of sensory organs

A

To convert a sensory stimulus to an electrical signal in the nervous system (sensory transduction)

117
Q

Explain sensory transduction and sort its sequential process

A

Convert a sensory stimulus into a electrical signal in the nervous system

118
Q

What do olfactory receptors do?

A

convert odorant binding into a change in membrane potential (sensory transduction)

119
Q

What does odorant binding induce?

A

conformational changes and opens the ion channels of olfactory receptors

120
Q

What are the 4 invertebrate examples of asexual reproduction?

A

Budding (buds pinch off from parent), fission (parents split equally in 2), fragmentation and regeneration, pathogenesis (eggs develop into new individuals without being fertilised)

121
Q

What is hermaphroditism?

A

Each individual has both female and male reproductive systems, simultaneous ones have both at same time and sequential are both sexes at different times

122
Q

What is oviparity?

A

egg laying

123
Q

What is viviparity?

A

live birth, evolved from oviparity

124
Q

What is a hormone?

A

a signalling molecule from the endocrine system

125
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

System/network of tissues and glands that regulate aspects of an animals biology through the release of hormones

126
Q

Key examples of vertebrate endocrine glands

A

Pituitary gland (master gland), pancreas, liver, brain, gastrointestinal tract, heart

127
Q

Steroid hormones are what type of molecules and made from what?

A

lipid molecules and made from cholesterol

128
Q

Hormones are derived from?

A

Amino acids like peptides, proteins, amines

129
Q

Where are receptors for peptide and steroid molecules located?

A

peptide - cell membrane
Steroid - mostly inside the cell inside cytoplasm or nucleus

130
Q

What are the three types of sex accessory exocrine glands?

A

Seminal vesicles (2), prostate gland (1), bulbourethral glands (2)

131
Q

Secretions are collectively ? And contain ?

A

alkaline, contain nutrients, coagulant and atiocoagulent enzymes, mucus

132
Q

Secretion of sex accessory glands and sperm =

A

semen

133
Q

Meiosis produces ? Gametes

A

haploid

134
Q

What are environmental estrogens (EE)?

A

foreign substances from the environment absorbed by the body that mimic or alter the action of natural estrogens in the body, example of EDC (endocrine disrupting chemical)

135
Q

What are the main causes of the amphibian extinction crisis?

A

pollution like atrazine which effects chemical castration and feminisation at extremely low doses

136
Q

Alligator: the lake apopka story

A

chemical spill effected genetalia in young ones, so low hatching rates and high juvenile mortality

137
Q

What is a proximate question?

A

how does the behaviour happen?

138
Q

What is a ultimate question?

A

why does the behaviour happen?

139
Q

What are Tinbergens 4 questions?

A
  1. What stimulus triggers it and anatomical mechanisms lead to the response?
  2. How does animals experience between growth ad development affect it?
  3. How does the behaviour aid survival an reproduction?
  4. What is the evolutionary history behind that behaviour?
140
Q

What is a fixed action pattern?

A

innate, behavioural response to well defined stimuli, adaptive

141
Q

What is spatial learning?

A

using natural variations in the environment to locate nest

142
Q

What is associative learning?

A

association between 2 stimuli or a behaviour and stimulus

143
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

associative learning, a voluntary behaviour tat is reinforced or punished which results in altered probability of the behaviour reoccurring

144
Q

What is cognition and problem solving?

A

process of knowing that involves awareness, reasoning, recollection and judgement

145
Q

Kinesis

A

No specific direction, not an orientated movement

146
Q

Difference between circadian rhythm, circannual rhythm, circatidal rhythm

A

Circadian - daily
Circannual - annual
Circatidal - tides

147
Q

Case study: pukekos
Social hierarchy - ethogram defined

A

Ethogram - head flick, pecking, charging, fighting

148
Q

What is kin selection?

A

evolutionary effect of both parental aid given to offspring and altruism to relatives other than offspring

149
Q

What is Hamiltons rule?

A

rB>C

150
Q

What is Hymenoptera?

A

insect order that includes ants bees and wasps

151
Q

Define eusociality

A

Overlap of generation, reproductive devision of labour, cooperative brood care

152
Q

Intra-sexual selection

A

Competition within one sex for access to members of opposite sex

153
Q

Inter-sexual selection

A

Choice by individuals of one sex for particular members of opposite sex

154
Q

Differences in reproductive rate for females and males

A

Females - limited by resources
Males - limited by access to females

155
Q

Give an example of sex role reverse and what they are limited by

A

Pipefish
Males limited by size of their brood pouch
Females limited by access to males

156
Q

What’s the difference between polygyny and polyandry ?

A

polygyny - single male mate with many females
Polyandry - single female mates with many males

157
Q

Difference between pheromones and allomones

A

P - intra specific (sex, aggregation, trail, alarm)
A - inter specific (allomones + emitter, kairomones +receptor)

BIOL112 (3 decks)

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