BIOL1104 midterm 2 info Flashcards
Adiabatic lapse rate
10 degrees/1000m
environmental lapse rate
4 degrees/1000m
ecology
study of how factors such as climate and interaction with other species influence the distribution and abundance of organisms (occur at a hierarchy of scales)
environmentalism
social movement based on various backgrounds whose collective goal is to reduce humanities ecological footprint
natural history
study of plants or animals leaning more towards observational rather than experimental methods of study; published more in magazines than academic journals
Climate
- four physical factors: temperature , precipitation, sunlight, wind
- the most significant influence on the distribution of organisms on lands and in the oceans
troposphere
- warmest air is found near the ground (sensible heat)
- as we increase in altitude it gets cooler cause there are less molecules
- adiabatic expansion
adiabatic expansion
- air mass above the ground is heated up and the area of the air mass is increased
- mass is buoyant and rises up
- as it rises t cools because the molecules are more spread out
- other air masses come to fill the space and the cycle continues
mesosphere
temperature drop because theres not enough oxygen to continue the ozone rxn
thermosphere
temperature increase because of the presence of gamma and xrays
coriolis effect
makes storms swirl clockwise in the Southern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere.
also you move slower at the poles
Coriolis effect
makes storms swirl clockwise in the Southern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere.
also you move slower at the poles
polar cells
60-70 degrees north
cool and moist temperate rain forest
Hadley cells
30-40degrees north
hot and wet tropical rainforest
ferrel cells
60-70 degrees north
hot and dry dessert
why do tree lines exist?
- coniferous trees keep their needles in the winter
- they lose their moisture
- tree line is a function of how long the winter season is because if the trees are higher on the mountain, the winter will be longer and they will dry out
- tree lines exist because of winter desiccation
why do deciduous trees drop their leaves in the winter?
- theres no source of moisture in the winter
- if they don’t they will dry out and die
- to prevent winter desiccation
how are camels and saguaros alike?
- they reduce heat gain: small surface area on cactus and high density of white needles + spine on the cactus reduces air flow from the outside environment , camels face the sun to reduce body exposure to the sun+have dense hair that prevents hot air from heating up their body
- they reduce water loss: camels don’t sweat which allows body temp to increase; cactus closes its stomata and allows its body temp to increase
how have plants in the tundra adapted?
- most plants are small therefore less surface area for water loss and getting cold
- very dense growth reduces convection flow
- succulents retain water which retains heat
- pubescents (fine hair) prevent air flow directly on the plant itself
- reflect sun rays to the stigma and the stamen to increase the temperature to those areas which enables germination and pollination
variables that limit the distribution of species in terrestrial biome
moisture & temperature
macro climate
- when warm and moist air approaches a mountain, the air rises and cools releasing moisture on the windward side of the peak
- on the leeward side, cooler, dry air descends absorbing moisture and producing rain shadow (shadow determines where many deserts are found)
micro climate
forrest trees often moderate the microclimate below them
-cleared areas experience greater temperature extremes than the forrest interior because of greater solar radiation and wind currents that arise from the rapid heating and cooling of open land
biomes
characterized by vegetation type (terrestrial biome) and physical environment (aquatic biome)
terrestrial biomes
- because of latitudinal patterns of climate, terrestrial biomes show strong latitudinal patterns
- usually grade into each other without sharp boundaries
- vertical layering
disturbance
an event that changes a community, removing an organism from it and altering resource availability
why is the ocean blue
- beam of light comes from from the sun some is reflected and some is refracted
- red is absorbed first and blue is reflected back up
why do we see red fish
advantage of being red when red is absorbed is that it makes the fish hard to see
thermocline
a steep temperature gradient in a body of water such as a lake, marked by a layer above and below which the water is at different temperatures.
below thermocline is 4 degrees
Langmuir streaks
-as the wind blows it creates a water current and the warm water is rotated
-algae is also rotated which oxidizes the water
foam=algae mucus
aquatic biomes
characterized by their physical environment
show less latitudinal variation
stratification in aquatic biomes
upper photic zone: sufficient light for photosynthesis
lower aphotic zone: little light penetrates
abyssal zone: 2000-6000m below
benthic zone : bottom of all aquatic biomes
ecotone
area of integration between terrestrial biomes
eutrophic
nutrient rich but oxygen poor
ogliotrophic
oxygen rich but nutrient poor
estuary
transition between river –> sea
reef crest
extreme environment , high stress, limit species distribution, only robust benthics survive
mid depth of reef
moderate stress, permit more biological interaction between species so there is some predation but not much
slight competition for space
fore reef
low stress, more predation and herbivory affecting and now control algae and coral interaction
population
a group of individuals of a single species living in the same general area
dispersion
pattern of spacing amount of individuals within the boundaries of a population
clumped dispersion pattern
- intraspecific aggregation + interspecific competition
- most common pattern
- food& mating behaviours + predation defence
uniform dispersion pattern
usually a result of antagonistic social interaction (ie) territoriality
intraspecific competition+ limited ressources
random dispersion pattern
unpredictable spacing
occurs in the absence of strong positive or negative interactions amount individuals or where chemical factors are relatively constant
not common
demography
study of the vital statistics of populations and how they change over time
index of dispersion
(delta)^2/x
if ID>1 =clumped
ID<1=uniform
ID=1=random
life tables
summarizes the survival and reproduction rates of individuals in specific age groups within a population
usually concentrates on the females
“book keeping devices” tracks patterns of survival
cohort life tables (horizontal , or dynamic life table)
large number of individuals born at the same time
track through time
good use for species with short life duration
(ex) indispensable mortality –> turtle deaths
(ex)key factor analysis –>tracking baby squirrel population
static life table (vertical, time specific)
record age at death of large number of individuals
fecundity
average number of female babies born to a female mother in each age group
mx
survivorship
proportion of individuals born who survive to age
lx = nx/n0
Type I curve
flat at the start (low death rate) and then drops steeply (death rate increase)
Type II curve
intermediate, linear , constant death rate
Type III curve
drops sharply at the start (high death rate) then flattens out (death rate declines) (very large offspring with very little care )
net reproductive rate
R0=Σlxmx
exponential model
populations of all species have the potential to expand greatly when resources are abundant
3 models
model 1 (exponential model)
assumptions:
- density independent
- unlimited environment
- non-overlapping generations
in one generation: pop doubles in size
next generations: pop doubles again
Nt=No(lamba)^t
Density-independent, discrete (pulsed) population
growth = geometric growth
model 2 (exponential model)
assumptions:
- density independent
- unlimited environment
- overlapping generations
N/t=B-D=rtN
r species
Density-independent, continuous population growth=exponential growth
r species
are those that emphasize high growth rates, typically exploit less-crowded ecological niches, and produce many offspring, each of which has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood
logistic population growth model
the per capita population growth rate approaches zero as the carrying capacity is reached
N/t=rN(k-N/N)
produces an S shaped curve
model 3 (exponential model)
assumptions:
- limited environment
- density-dependent
- overlapping generation
continuous logistic growth
K species
K species
species possess relatively stable populations and tend to produce relatively low numbers of offspring; however, individual offspring tend to be quite large in comparison with r-selected species.
convergent oscillation
overshoot carrying capacity
respond to overshoot
boom and bust
overshoot so much that they crash so hard they go extinct
determination of size population
1) biotic potential
2) environmental resistance
- intraspecific competition
- interspecific competition
- predation
- mutualism and parasitism
semelparity
one shot big bang reproduction (favoured in unpredictable environments)
iteroparity
repeated reproduction (favoured in dependable environments)
metapopulation
a group of spatially separated populations of one species that interact through immigration and emigration
Interference competition (intraspecific competition)
individual acquire resource at expense of others by directly competing against each other
clear winner and loser
exploitative competition
- individual harm each other by taking up resources before others are able to
- if both individuals draw from shared/ limited supply, both are weakened
mechanism of regulation
- intrinsic factors
- social interaction
- predation
- toxic waste
- disease
- habitat selection
per capita growth
r = ln(R0)/T
generation time
T=(ΣXlxmx) / R0
biological community
group of populations of different species that live close enough to interact
community
collection of species bound together by the network of influences that species have on each other both within a scale and between a scale
competition (-/-)
occurs when individuals of different species compete for a resource that limits their growth and survival
two species competing for the same resource cannot coexist permanently in the same place
leads to competitive exclusion
ecological niche
the sum of a species use of the biotic and abiotic resources in its environment
two species cant coexist in the same area if their niches are identical
resource partitioning
the differentiation of niches that enables similar species to coexist (in a heterogenous environment)
fundamental niche
niche potentially occupied by that species (in the absence of other species interaction)
realized niche
the portion of its fundamental niche that the species actually occupies (restrict on the fundamental niche)
character displacement
evolutionary divergence when two similar species inhabit the same environment
(2 types)
1) physiological (ex) bass and pumpkin seed compete for area ; partition the habitat in time and not, evolved to use the same habitat but at different temperature thresholds
2) behavioural (ex) yellow pine and juniper trees (two species of chipmunks: umbris and dorsalis)
-in lower elevation aggresion exclude umb but at intermediate aggression is ineffective
predation/ herbivory (+/-)
one species kills and eats the other species (predation)
organism eats parts of a plant or algae (herbivory)
1 line of evidence (prey & predators)
coevolutionary relationships
(ex) cheetahs are getting faster because gazelles are becoming more agile (therefore prey pop is needed to drive evolutionary changes and control the amount of predation occurring
(ex) sea urchins and lilies
-urchins feed on lilies
-mutation enables lilies to have legs and can now crawl away
(predation induced macroevolution)
2nd line of evidence (prey & predators)
anti-predator defence mechanism
aposomatic
warning coloration (ex)skunk
cryptic coloration
camouflage (ex) seahorse
chemical
chemical defence that has glands that secrete a toxin when ingested (ex) cane toad
phagomimicry
defence that involves two different glands
one gland secretes an ink cloud the other secrete opaline making predator think that the cloud is food instead (ex) sea hare
bartesian mimicry
a palatable or harmless species mimics an unpalatable or harmful one (ex) hoverfly
mullerian mimicry
two or more unpalatable species resemble one another (ex) frogs in peru and wasp and bee
thanatosis
pretended to be dead (ex) english grass snake
disruptive coloration
bars in body pattern to break the shape of our body so that you can blend (ex) juvenille parrot fish
distrcation
body pattern looks like a fish going the other way (ex) butterfly fish
physical defence
spikes on porcupine and sea urchin
autonomy
breaks it limb off and regrows it later (ex) brittle sea star
evisceration
removal of some or all of the organs of the gastrointestinal tract and then regrows it
(ex) sea slug
intimidation display
buff themselves up (ex) jackle and condor
mob behaviour
mob the predator to drive it away
predator satiation
overwhelm the predator
3rd line of evidence (prey & predators)
food webs and trophic cascades
benthic food web (periphyton/macrophyte)
periphyton/macrophytes–>macroinvertibrates–>invertivorous fish–>pisciorous fish
pelagic based microphytic food web
phytoplankton–>zooplankton–>plantivorous fish–> piscivorous fish
connectance
connectance= number of links/ number of potential links= s(s-1)/2
s=species richness
assumption made: each species can eat any other species but prey species cannot in turn eat their predators
values closest to 1 indicate generalist food web (anybody can eat anybody)
linkage density
measure of how generalized or specialized a food web is
average number of links/ species
bottom up resource availability model
known as green world because most of the biomass is in plants
if you fish from the top its okay because most of the biomass is in the plants
energy hypothesis
most ecosystems are 4 trophic levels because theres not enough energy to support more trophic levels
top down predator prey model
brown world because there isn’t many green plants
overfishing leads to algae blooms
symbiosis
when individuals of 2 or more species live in direct and intimate contact with one another
commensalism (+/0)
3 types :
1) inquilinism (tenant)
(ex) demodex folliculorum - feed on wax and mate at night on eyelashes
2) phoressy (hitchhiker)
(ex) dont hurt but disperse seeds attach seed onto fish
3) metabiosis (taker)
(ex) hermit crabs take empty shell of snail and take it as their own
parasitism (+/-)
the parasite derives its nourishment from another organism, its host, who is harmed in the process
endoparasites
live within the body of the host (ex) schistosomes
ectoparasite
feed on the external surface of a host (ex) black legged ticks
sequential hermaphodism
change of sex during growth
microparasite
short-lived, smaller than other parasites, and reproduces within its host (ex) west nile virus
macroparasite
long-lived, bigger parasites, doesn’t reproduce within its host (ex) schistosomes
parasitoid
kills the host but not directly or right away (ex) wasp
holoparasite
parasitic organism that cannot complete its life-cycle without exploiting a suitable host. If an obligate parasite cannot obtain a host it will fail to reproduce (broomrape)
hemiparasite
a plant that obtains or may obtain part of its food by parasitism(mistletoe)
definitive host
the host where the adult form of the parasite resides (ex) schistosome
intermediate host
host where the stages of development resides (ex) cercaria
dead end host
host where the reproductive cycle can no longer carry on (ex) west nile virus
enslaver parasite
changes the behaviour of the host (ex) hookworm
kleptoparasitism
one animal takes food from another that caught or collected the food (ex) frigate bird
brood parasitism (mafia hypothesis)
organisms that rely on others to raise their young (ex) cuckoo bird
mutualism (+/+)
3 ways:
1) dispersive
-dispersing related to plants and seeds=pollination
ideal pollinator for plants = specialist to increase fidelity
as a pollinator you want to be a generalist
specialized co evolution=pollination syndrome (plant and bee evolved together over time)
2) resource based
(ex) ants place newly cut leaf fragment on top of fungus garden, ants defecate on top of leaves which decomposes them (gets the enzyme from the fungus)
both ant and funghi get food
3) physiological
(ex) coral reef =nutrient poor environment
coral symbiosome with the algae that lives inside the coral
zooxthanthelle releases nutrient for the coral
source of CO2 for corals
oceanic HCO3
obligate mutualism
one species has lost the ability to survive without its partner
facultative mutualism
can survive alone
facilitation (+/+) or (+/0)
the survival and reproduction of other species without living in the direct and intimate contact of a symbiosome ( common in plant ecology)
keystone species
a species whose removal allows prey population to explode and often decrease overall diversity
interspecific competition
a form of competition in which individuals of different species compete for the same resources
intraspecific competition
competition between members of the same population
H.A gleason
views a community as the chance assemblage of organisms with similar abiotic needs
F.E clements
assemblages of organisms that must interact with each other form a single community
zoonotic pathogen
a pathogen that is transferred from another species to humans
