BIOL Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Genome
A
All genetic material in a cell.
2
Q
Diploid
A
Contains two matched sets (homologous) of chromosomes (2n)
3
Q
Haploid
A
(n) contains one set of chromosomes
4
Q
Somatic
A
Cells are body cells not associated with sexual reproduction
Somatic cells are diploid
5
Q
Germ-line
A
Cells are in sex organs and produce gametes
6
Q
Gametes
A
Sperm, egg cells
Gametes are haploid
7
Q
Cellular division
A
The process of one cell dividing into two cells
8
Q
Mitosis
A
one cell divides into two genetically identical cells; asexual reproduction
9
Q
Meiosis
A
one cell divides into two, then each of those two divide again, resulting in four cells that are genetically unique: Sexual reproduction
10
Q
Cell cycle
A
Growth and division
Life cycle of a cell
not all cells go through this complete process
Cell cycle is highly controlled
11
Q
Cytokinesis
A
complete division of cytoplasm
12
Q
Mitosis purposes:
A
Grow new tissue
Replace dead cells
Repair tissue
Asexual reproduction (unicellular organisms)
13
Q
Cell cycle checkpoints
A
Cell cycle is hated until favorable conditions are met
The checkpoints pause the cell cycle at specific points and checks conditions
Cell cycle will continue if conditions are correct
If not, cell tries to fix it, if not, then cell induces apoptosis (programmed cell death)
14
Q
Cancer
A
Uncontrolled cell division
Mutations in genes for cell cycle checkpoints can result in a cell becoming cancerous, multiplying and invading nearby tissue; causing the tissue function to malfunction.
15
Q
Benign tumor
A
mass of cells not spreading or invading other tissue
16
Q
Malignant tumor
A
a spreading body of cancerous cells
17
Q
Metastasis
A
process of cancer cells spreading into other parts of the body
18
Q
Meiosis purposes:
A
to produce haploid gametes, for sexual reproduction
Reduces the number of chromosome sets from 2 sets (diploid) to 1 set (haploid)
The resulting gametes (sperm and eggs) fuse (fertilization) creating a zygote with 2 sets (diploid) of chromosomes
19
Q
Homologous chromosomes
A
Paternal and maternal copies
20
Q
Sister chromatids
A
Created during DNA replication (S phase)
21
Q
Nondisjunction
A
when homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis
Causes about 50% of miscarriages
10 to 20% of known pregnancies end in a miscarriage
This is actually higher because often a miscarriage happens before woman knows she is pregnant
22
Q
Gregor mendel:
A
Teacher and monk that researched inheritance
Used pea plants as model system
23
Q
Dominant allele
A
Only one copy of this is needed for trait to express itself
24
Q
Recessive allele
A
Only expressed when both alleles for this gene are the same
25
Alleles
Alternative versions of a gene
26
Phenotype
The expressed trait; the genotype plus the environment determine phenotype
27
Genotype
The alleles of the trait an organism has
28
Zygosity
for a trait
29
Homozygous
same alleles
30
Homozygous dominant
Same dominant alleles
AA
31
Homozygous recessive
Same recessive alleles
aa
32
Heterozygous
different alleles
Aa
33
Homozygous
AA
34
Punnett square
Visual representation of potential offspring combinations from parent’s gametes
Determines possibility of potential genotypes and phenotypes
35
Law of segregation
Each gamete inherits one gene copy of each gene
36
Monohybrid cross
Considering one gene
37
Codominance
Neither allele is dominant over the other, both phenotypes are expressed
38
ABO blood type
3 alleles in population
Co-dominance and complete dominance
39
Sex-linked traits
Only on one of the sex chromosomes
40
X-linked
recessive traits have unique inheritance patterns
41
Polygenic traits
Single trait influenced by multiple genes
Most traits
The more genes that contribute, the more phenotypes are possible
42
Double Helix
Wrapped around histone proteins
Coiled and condensed in a chromosome
43
DNA replication
When a cell divides, each daughter cell must have an entire copy of the genome, so the DNA must be copied
Occurs during S phase of interphase
44
Central dogma of molecular biology
→ DNA to protein
45
Transcription
→ DNA to RNA
46
Translation
→ RNA to protein
47
Prokaryotes
Have single circular chromosome
48
Chromosomes contain what?
Genes
49
Eukaryotes
Have many linear chromosomes that occur in pairs
50
How many chromosomes does human have?
46 Chromosomes
51
Homologous pair
are pair of chromosomes that contain the same genes, but different version of those genes (alleles) may be different. Different versions of genes code for different versions of the protein
52
Does each one of our cells contain a complete copy of all of our genes?
Yes, except gametes
53
If a cell has its chromosomes in homologous pairs, it is a ....
Diploid
54
If a cell has one set of chromosomes not in homologous pairs, it is a ....
Haploid
55
A dog has a diploid number 2n of 78 chromosomes, how many chromosomes are in a haploid (n) sperm cell?
39 chromosomes
56
An alligator has 16 pairs of chromosomes, how many chromosomes does an alligator have?
32 Chromosomes
57
What type of cell in animals are haploid?
Gametes
58
In order for a mutation to be passed onto the offspring, the mutation must occur in ...
Germline
59
When a sperm and an egg fuse, they create a single cell, a zygote, how many chromosomes does a zygote have?
46 Chromosomes
60
Cell cycle phases
Interphase
G1 Phase - first gap: growth
S Phase - DNA synthesis:
DNA replication
G2 Phase - second gap: growth
Mitotic phase (cellular division)
Mitosis
Cytokinesis
61
Mitosis phases
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
62
G0 phase
Cells stay in this phase if not actively dividing
Cells can stay in G0 phase for a short time or permanently
Permanently G0 phase:
Eye lens cells
Muscle cells
Neurons
63
Cancer phases
Stage 0: Carcinoma in situ -- Early form
Stage 1: Localized
Stage 2: Early locally advanced
Stage 3: Late locally advanced'
Stage 4: Metastasized
64
What is a possible result of a mutation to a cell cycle checkpoint?
Cancer
65
Someone tells you that they have a tumor spreading into other tissues, it is a _________ tumor.
Malignant
66
Do all cells go through the entire cell cycle?
No, not all cells go through the complete process
67
What sex chromosomes has SRY gene that instruct s body to develop male parts, otherwise, embryo develops into a female?
1) X
2) Y
68
What phase are sister chromatids created?
Interphase: S phase
69
What phase of mitosis are sister chromatids separated?
Mitosis: Anaphase
70
At the start of mitosis there are single diploid cells, at the end of mitosis there are two _____ cells.
Diploid
71
If DNA synthesis did not occur during S phase, what would not be able to happen?
DNA would not be copied also called cellular division
72
Which of the following are exact copies of each other: homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids?
Sister chromatids
73
What process separates two daughter cells completely?
Cytokinesis
74
What process creates haploid cells?
Meisosis
75
Why does meiosis produce sex cells with half the genetic material of the parent?
So during fertilization a cell with complete amount is made
76
A zygote is the result from the fusion of what two cells?
Sperm and Egg cells
77
Is a zygote haploid or diploid? is a gamete haploid or diploid?
Zygotes: Diploid
Gametes: Haploid
78
During which stage of meiosis are sister chromatids separated into two separate chromosomes?
Anaphase 2
79
During which stage of meiosis are homologous chromosomes separated?
Anaphase 1
80
Is meiosis I or meiosis II more like mitosis? Why?
Meiosis 2 because the sister chromatids are being separated.
81
Hypothetical: If two gametes that were diploid fused during fertilization, how many sets of chromosomes would the resulting zygote have? if human, how many total chromosomes would there be in the zygote?
We would have 4 set of chromosomes
if it were human, it would be a total of 92
82
Both crossing over and independent assortment increase ________ in the offspring.
genetic variation
83
Is chromosomes 1 separation influenced by the separation of chromosomes 2?
No, this is an independent assortment.
84
What is the chance for a zygote to inherit the Y chromosome from the father gamete?
50%
85
If an embryo has XY but the Y chromosome does not have the SRY gene, what sex will the embryo develop into?
Female
86
The incorrect separation of chromosomes that results in miscarriages or disorders like trisomy 21, is called ...
Nondisjunction
87
(Red and white flower combine and create 4 red flowers)
Which flower color is dominant in this plant?
How do you know?
What is the phenotype of the offspring?
What is the genotype of the offspring?
Red because all offspring are red, so the red is dominant.
Phenotype - is red flower
Genotype - Rr
88
The observable traits expressed by alleles is the organism's ...
Phenotype
89
The Alleles of an organism are its ______.
Genotype
90
A cross between two plants for leaf shape results in a 3:1 ratio of rounded to jagged edged leaves in the offspring. Which of the two is dominant?
Rounded
91
What is the zygosity for each of the following genotypes?
hh - Homozygous Recessive
Hh - Heterozygous
HH - Homozygous Dominant
92
In dragons, red (R) is dominant to green (r) coloration.
1) What is the phenotypic ratio of a cross between a heterozygous red dragon and a homozygous recessive green dragon?
2) What is the phenotypic ratio of a cross between a homozygous red dragon and a homozygous recessive green dragon?
3) What is the phenotypic ratio of a cross between two heterozygous red dragons?
1) Heterozygous Red: Rr
Homozygous Recessive Green: rr
Ratio: 1:1 or 50% change that offspring is red or green
2) Homozygous Red: RR
Homozygous Recessive Green: rr
Ratio: 1:0 or 100% chance that offspring is red
3) Rr x Rr = 3:1 Ratio
93
In dragons, red (R) is dominant to green (r) coloration.
1) A green mother dragon gives birth to 20 offspring, all of which are green. What is most likely the father's coloration?
2) A red mother dragon gives birth to 40 offspring, 32 of them are red and 8 are green. What is most likely the father's coloration?
3) Is it possible for two red dragons to have three green babies?
1) Green
2) Red
3) Yes, if they are both Rr
94
In dragons, fire breath and ice breath are phenotypes controlled by one gene.
1) A cross between a fire breathing and ice breathing dragon resulted a 1:1 phenotypic ratio. Can you tell which one is dominant?
2) What cross and phenotypic ratio could you tell for sure?
1)
2)
95
Write out the cross and phenotypic ratio of the following crosses:
1. Two type AB individuals
2. An individual with type A (heterozygous) and an individual with type B heterozygous.
1) 1:2:1
2) 1:1:1:1
96
1) What is the phenotypic ratio from the cross between a individual with blood type AB and an individual with blood type A (homozygous)?
2) What is the phenotypic ratio from the cross between a individual with blood type B (heterozygous) and an individual with blood type A (homozygous)?
3) If a parent has type AB blood and the other parent has type O blood, what are the possible blood types of the offspring?
4) Is possible for two parents who are both type AB blood to have an offspring that is type O blood?
1) 50%
2) 50%
3) AO & BO
4) No, it is only possible if both parents have the O recessive gene.
97
1) Can a male be a carrier for red-green colorblindness? Why or why not?
2) What are the chances (%) a male offspring will be RGCB if his mother is a carrier, and his father is RGCB?
3) What are the chances (%) an offspring will be female and RGCB if her mother is RGCB, and her father has normal vision?
4) What is the expected outcome of phenotypes in a cross between a homozygous normal vision female and a RGCB male?
5) The more ____________________ that contribute to a trait the greater the number of phenotypes that trait has.
1) No, because a carrier has the gene but not the symptoms. (In this case it is in the X chromosome so the male will just have the color blindness)
2) 50%
3) 0%
4) 50%
5) Gene
98
1) Write the DNA complementary strand to TGAACGTAG.
2) What part of the nucleotide contains the differences between individuals?
3) List the three main structural differences between DNA and RNA.
4) What are the subunits of nucleic acids?
5) What is the shape of DNA?
1) A - T ∝, C - G ∝
ACTTGCATC
2) (phosphate, base, sugar)
The bases of nucleotides (order of bases, Cytosine, Thymine, Guanine, Adenine, Uracil)
3) Sugar difference (deoxyribose vs ribose), Strands (double strand/double helix vs single strand), Bases (Thymine vs Uracil)
4) Phosphate group, sugar, & nitrogenous bases
5) Double helix
99
1) When does DNA replication occur during a cell’s life cycle?
2) Why does a cell copy all of its DNA with DNA replication?
3) What strands are in each of the two DNA molecules created after DNA replication?
4) What must be attached to the DNA strand to allow DNA polymerase to attach?
5) What is the difference between the leading and lagging strands in DNA replication?
1) Occurs during S Phase of interphase
2) To pass down to the next generation; so the next generation can get the exact copy
3) Complementary Strands; strands created to complement the daughter strands
4) RNA primers are added to DNA strands which tell the polymerase where to attach
5) Leading- Only side that is synthesized continuously
Lagging- Synthesized in short segments & stitched together
100
1) What is the sequential order of molecules stated by the central dogma of molecular biology?
2) What structure performs translation?
3) Write the mRNA sequence transcribed from the DNA sequence GCTTAGAA.
4) The order of nucleotides in mRNA code for the order of ____________________ in proteins.
5) What molecule brings amino acids to ribosomes?
1) (RNA, protein, DNA)
DNA → RNA → Protein
2) Cytoplasm or rough ER (where ribosomes are, protein factories)
3) T → A , A → U, C - G ∝
CGAAUCUU
4) Amino acids
5) tRNA; Brings amino acids one at a time to ribosome
101
1) Using the codon table, translate the following RNA sequence and write the sequence of amino acids.
2) Using the codon table, translate the following RNA sequence and write the sequence of amino acids.
1) AUAUGGGUACUGUGUGAAA
Start Codon: AUG
Stop Codon: UGA
AUAUGGGUACUGUGUGAAA
AUG→GGU→ACU→GUG→UGA
Methionine, Met → Glycine, Gly →Threonine, Thr → Valine, Val →Stop
2) GAUGCCUAGCUUGUGAAA
Start Codon: AUG
Stop Codon: UGA
GAUGCCUAGCUUGUGAAA
AUG→CCU→AGC→UUG→UGA
Methionine, Met → Proline, Pro → Serine, Ser → Leucine, Leu → Stop
