BIOL 2402 Final Exam Focused Review

Question 1

Compare general characteristics of nervous system vs. endocrine system.

Answer 1

The nervous system uses electoral impulses while the end system uses hormones release into the bloodstream. The nervous system, system is fast targeted well. The endocrine system is slower, but more widespread.

Question 2

What part of the brain functions as a master control center of the endocrine
system?

Answer 2

Hypothalamus

Question 3

3. Describe function of adrenocorticotropic hormone.

Answer 3

Acts on the adrenal cortex to cause the release of glucocorticoids

Question 4

4. Describe effects of thyroid hormone.

Answer 4

Metabolism: Thyroid hormones increase the rate at which the body uses energy and burns calories. This affects weight gain and loss.

Heart rate: Thyroid hormones increase heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output.

Body temperature: Thyroid hormones raise or lower body temperature.

Digestion: Thyroid hormones affect how quickly food moves through the digestive tract.

Brain development: Thyroid hormones affect brain development and mental activity.

Muscle strength: Thyroid hormones affect muscle strength and how muscles contract.

Skin and bone maintenance: Thyroid hormones help maintain skin and bone health.

Reproductive health: Thyroid hormones play a role in reproductive health.

Question 5

5. What stimulates the release of hormones from the adrenal medulla?

Answer 5

the activation of the sympathetic nervous system, specifically by preganglionic sympathetic fibers

Question 6

6. Describe effects of insulin.

Answer 6

Lowering blood sugar: Insulin moves sugar from the blood into cells, where it can be used for energy. This helps to keep blood glucose levels in a healthy range.

Improving energy levels: Keeping blood sugar levels in check can give you more energy.

Promoting protein synthesis: Insulin promotes protein synthesis in muscle cells.

Inhibiting glucagon release: Insulin inhibits the release of glucagon, another hormone that raises blood sugar.

Regulating appetite: Insulin is involved in regulating appetite in brain cells

Question 7

7. What endocrine structure secretes melatonin?

Answer 7

the pineal gland

Question 8

8. Describe functions of blood.

Answer 8

Transportation
Protection
Regulation of body conditions

Question 9

9. Describe characteristics of the formed elements.

Answer 9

Erythrocytes (red blood cells) transport respiratory gases in the
blood
* Leukocytes (white blood cells) defend against pathogens
* Platelets help form clots to prevent blood loss

Question 10

10. What is a buffy coat?

Answer 10

a thin layer of white blood cells and platelets that separates from plasma and red blood cells in a blood sample after centrifugation:

Question 11

11. Describe the structure of hemoglobin and how it binds oxygen.

Answer 11

Hemoglobin is a protein composed of four polypeptide chains, two alpha and two beta, each containing a heme group with an iron atom at its center; oxygen binds to the iron atom within the heme group

Question 12

12. Explain antigens and antibodies in the blood types A, B, AB and O.

Answer 12

“antigens” are molecules present on the surface of red blood cells, specifically the A and B antigens, which determine your blood type, while “antibodies” are proteins found in the blood plasma that will attack foreign antigens

Question 13

13. List the phases of hemostasis.

Answer 13

Vasoconstriction
The blood vessel constricts to reduce blood loss. This is the first response to an injury.

Platelet plug formation
Platelets in the blood stick to the damaged tissue to form a temporary plug. This is also known as primary hemostasis.

Coagulation cascade
Coagulation factors in the blood amplify the clotting effects to stabilize the plug. This is also known as secondary hemostasis.

Fibrin plug formation
The platelet plug and fibrin form a solid clot

Question 14

14. Briefly describe the body’s first, second, and third lines of defense.

Answer 14

The body’s first line of defense consists of physical barriers like skin and mucous membranes, along with chemical secretions like saliva and stomach acid, preventing pathogens from entering the body;

the second line of defense is the innate immune system, which involves non-specific white blood cells like phagocytes that engulf and destroy invaders; and

the third line of defense is the adaptive immune system, where specialized white blood cells (B and T lymphocytes) recognize specific pathogens and produce antibodies to target them effectively, creating immunological memory for future encounters

Question 15

15. Describe antigen presentation.

Answer 15

Antigen presentation is a process of displaying parts of antigenic fragments—epitopes—to the immune cells bearing corresponding antigen receptors.

Question 16

16. How do cytotoxic T-cells destroy infected cells?

Answer 16

by recognizing specific antigens on the surface of the infected cell, then releasing cytotoxic granules containing proteins like perforin and granzyme, which create pores in the cell membrane, allowing the cell to undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis) and effectively killing the infected cell and the pathogen within it.

Question 17

17. Define immunoglobulin.

Answer 17

also known as antibodies, are proteins produced by white blood cells that help the body fight infection

Question 18

18. Compare the primary and secondary response to an infectious agent.

Answer 18

Speed
The primary response is slower than the secondary response. The primary response takes 5–7 days to develop, while the secondary response is much faster.

Strength
The secondary response is stronger than the primary response. The secondary response is more effective at inhibiting the infectious agent.

Antibodies
The primary response produces antibodies that are directed at multiple epitopes, and only some of these antibodies provide protection. The secondary response produces antibodies more rapidly and in greater quantities.

Memory cells
The secondary response benefits from memory B cells and memory T cells that were created during the primary response. When the body encounters the same pathogen again, these memory cells quickly recognize the antigen and produce antibodies.

The goal of vaccination is to increase the number of antigen-specific B and T cells so that the body can provide protection more quickly if it encounters the pathogen again.

Question 19

19. Define intercalated discs.

Answer 19

specialized junctions between cardiac muscle fibers (cardiomyocytes) that allow for rapid electric transmission, called an action potential, and nutrient exchange.

Question 20

List the sequence of events in the transmission of an impulse through the heart
muscle

Answer 20

sinoatrial (SA) node -> atrioventricular (AV) node -> bundle of His -> bundle branches -> Purkinje fibers