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BIOL 228 > BIOL 228 Midterm > Flashcards

BIOL 228 Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Define Ecology

A

The scientific study of the relationships between organisms and their environment

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2
Q

What is the difference between resources and conditions?

A

Resources can be consumed and are thus limited, conditions influence an organism but are not consumed

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3
Q

What is the ecological hierarchy?

A

The different levels at which organisms interact with each other

Biosphere
Biome
Landscape
Ecosystem
Community
Population
Individual

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4
Q

Define population

A

A group of individuals of the same species that occupy a given area

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5
Q

Define community

A

all populations of different species interacting within an ecosystem

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6
Q

What are the global abiotic spheres? (3)

A

Atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere

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7
Q

Scientific method

A

Observations
Question
Hypothesis
Predictions
Hypothesis testing
repeat

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8
Q

Define field study

A

examining natural patterns across the landscape
suggests relationship but cannot prove it

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9
Q

Define field experiment

A

experiment applied in a natural setting, realistic results

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10
Q

Define laboratory experiment

A

has much more control over abiotic factors, but results are less applicable in the field

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11
Q

Define natural experiments

A

not true experiments, but are often employed to monitor natural disturbances but there is no manipulation of treatment

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12
Q

Define life history

A

lifetime pattern of growth, development and reproduction

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13
Q

Define Monogamy

A

Involves pair bonds between one female and one male, both care for offspring

beavers, birds, less common in mammals

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14
Q

Define Polygamy

A

involves an individual (male or female) having more than one mate

Polygyny - single male with many females (orangutans, deer, elk)
Polyandry - single female with many males (less common, some birds)

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15
Q

Define Intrasexual Selection

A

Same sex competition among polyandrous species (male - male or female - female)

Promotes aggressive physical and behavioural traits (antlers)

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16
Q

Define Intersexual Selection

A

different “attractive” traits , may include ornamentation or other intrasexual characteristics

Assortative mating - when females select mates based on phenotypic traits deemed “attractive”

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17
Q

What is sexual selection a result of?`

A

Both inter and intrasexual selection

sexual selection is more intense in males - because most species are polygynous

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18
Q

Reproductive effort

A

the time and energy allocated for reproduction
If more energy is allocated for reproduction then less is available for growth, maintenance and defence

negative relationship between growth and reproductive effort

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19
Q

characteristics that life history depends on

A

of offspring / reproductive event

Degree of parental care / investment
age at first reproduction
longevity
# offspring / reproductive event
size of offspring at birth (more = smaller)
gender allocation
habitat

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20
Q

Precocial vs Altricial young

A

Precocial = active / mobile at birth
Altricial =helpless at birth, requires help

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21
Q

Semelparous vs Iteroparous organisms

A

Semelparous - invest all into growing up quickly to reproduce once in a suicidal effort (annual plants)

Iteroparous - spend energy on reproduction in bouts over the lifetime - trade off is when to reproduce (early or late)

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22
Q

Antagonistic Pleiotropy

A

when one gene controls for more than one trait, where at least one of these traits is beneficial to the organism’s fitness early on in life and at least one is detrimental to the organism’s fitness later on due to a decline in the force of natural selection.

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23
Q

Life history classification r vs. K strategists

A

r strategists
Species that live in environments that do not often exist at population carrying capacity = ‘r-selected species’

K strategists
species that experience competition live in populations that do reach carrying capacity = ‘ K-selected species’

most species fall between r and K

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24
Q

Modular organisms, genets and ramets

A

In modular organisms the zygte develops into a unit of construction that then produces further modules (plants)

a genet is a genetic individual arising from a zygote

ramets are modules produced asexually by the genet

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25
Q

distribution and geographic range

A

distribution describes a populations spatial location and is based on the presence or absence of individuals

geographic range is the area that encompasses all individuals of a species

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26
Q

Abundance

A

the number of individuals in the population and defines its size
is a function of population density

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27
Q

Ecological density

A

reflects the number of individuals per unit of available living space

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28
Q

Spatial dispersion

A

Random - individuasl position is independent of others

Uniform - results from negative interaction among individuals

Clumped - results from patchy resources, social groupings, ramet dynamics

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29
Q

Population size

A

density x area

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30
Q

Capture - recapture methods

A

Based on trapping, marking and releasing a known # of marked animals (M) into the population (N), uses ratio of marked (R) to sampled (n) individuals

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31
Q

Dispersal

A

The movement of individuals in space,
key process in metapopulation dynamics (maintains gene flow)
Passive dispersal - like pollen n shit

Emigration - individual moves out of the population

Immigration - individual moves in to the population

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32
Q

Define Philopatric

A

animals that habitualy return to the same location, or stay in place

33
Q

Define population growth

A

refers to how the numbers of individuals in a population increases or decreases with time
Addition via births or immigration
Subtracts via deaths and emigration

immigration/ emigration only affects open populations

34
Q

Exponential growth equations

A

Rate of change of growth in a population best described by dN/dt = (b-d)N

r= (b-d) = instantaneous growth rate

exponential population growth = dN/dt = rN

predicts the rate of population change through time

r = per capita rate of increase

also;

Nsubt =Nnote^rt – denotes population size at a given time under conditions of exponential growth

35
Q

Exponential growth rates (r)

A

r = 0, no change in population size

r > 0, population increases exponentially

r < 0, population decreases exponentially

Characteristic of populations that inhabit favourable conditions at low population densities

36
Q

Geometric growth

A

used to describe growth rates over discreet time intervals (distinct season on births)

lambda= e^r or r = lnlambda

37
Q

Define life table

A

an age specific account of mortality

38
Q

Define cohort

A

a group of individuals born in the same period of time

39
Q

Life table values

A

x = age classes

nx = number of individuals from original cohorts alive at a specified age (x)

lx = survivorship value, probability at birth of surviving to any given age (x)

dx = the difference between the number of individuals alive for any age class (nx) and the next older class (nx+1)

qx = age specified mortality rate, the number of individuals that died in a given time interval (dx)/(nx)

ex = age specific life expectancy, the average number of years that an individual of a given age (nx) us expected to live into the future

Lx = the average number of individuals alive during age interval x to x+1

Tx = total years lived into the future by individuals of age class x in the pop.

40
Q

n(x)

A

number of individuals from original cohorts alive at a specified age (x)

41
Q

l(x)

A

lx = survivorship value, probability at birth of surviving to any given age (x)

42
Q

d(x)

A

dx = the difference between the number of individuals alive for any age class (nx) and the next older class (nx+1)

43
Q

q(x)

A

qx = age specified mortality rate, the number of individuals that died in a given time interval (dx)/(nx)

44
Q

e(x)

A

ex = age specific life expectancy, the average number of years that an individual of a given age (nx) us expected to live into the future

45
Q

L(x)

A

Lx = the average number of individuals alive during age interval x to x+1

46
Q

T(x)

A

Tx = total years lived into the future by individuals of age class x in the pop.

47
Q

Mortality and survivorship curves (types)

A

Mortality curves plot qx against age x

survivorship curves plot lx against age x

Three kinds of survivorship curves
Type 1 - populations with individuals with long lifespans, survival rate is high throughout with heavy mortality at the end (humans)

Type 2- survival rates do not vary with age (birds, rodents, reptiles)

Type 3 - mortality rates high early in life (fish, trees)

48
Q

Define demography

A

the study of population growth

49
Q

b(x)

A

mean number of females born to a female in each age group

50
Q

gross reproductive rate (sigma?)

A

average number of female offspring born to a female over her lifetime

51
Q

Fecundity tables

A

combine survivorship (lx) with age specific birthrates (bx)

lxbx = mean number of females born in each age group adjusted for survivorship

R0 = net reproductive rate, average number of females that will be produced during a lifetime by a newborn female

52
Q

R0

A

net reproductive rate, average number of females that will be produced during a lifetime by a newborn female

R0=1, females replace themselves in population
R0 < 1, females are not replacing themselves in pop
R0 > 1 females are more than replacing themselves

53
Q

Tc

A

generation time - mean time between when female is born and when she reproduces

for a single generation t = Tc

results in being able to solve for r

r ~ (ln(R0))/Tc

54
Q

Logistic growth

A

S shaped curve in which birth and death rates vary in density dependent manner

deals with realistic environmental limitations

in the real world, resources are limited and the environment is not constant, if the rate of consumption exceeds the rate at which resources are resupplied then resources will shrink

55
Q

Logistic growth equation

A

takes into account rates of births and deaths that vary with population size / accounts for carrying capacity

dN/dt = rN (1- N/K)

When N>K population growth is negative
when N<K r is positive and pop is growing

if N=K then r =0 and no growth\

max pop growth rate occurs at N=K/2

56
Q

Density dependant effects

A

influence a population in proportion to its size

as pop density increases;
the mortality rate increases
fecundity rate decreases
or both

57
Q

Define fecundity

A

The ability to produce new offspring; fertility

58
Q

Intraspecific competition

A

competition between members of the SAME species

Exploitation competition
occurs when individuals indirectly interact with one another but affect the availability of shared resources (e.g., herbivores on the African savannas)
*
Interference competition
results when individuals directly interact and prevent others from occupying a habitat or
accessing resources within it (e.g., bird species’ nesting sites)

59
Q

sx

A

Age specific survival rates represent the probability that a female of that age will survive to the next age class

60
Q

Stochasticity (variation) (2 types)

A

Demographic stochasticity is the random (stochastic) variations in birth and death rates from year to year
– The variations in d and b cause populations to deviate from the predictions based on deterministic models
Environmental stochasticity is the random variations in the environment or the occurrence of natural disasters
– These events directly influence d and b

61
Q

Population cycles

A

Population fluctuations that are more
regular than expected are called

62
Q

Extirpation

A

local extinction

small populations are at an increased risk of extripation due to many factors, unable to find a mate etc

goes along with the Allee affect?

63
Q

The Allee effect

A

Is the decline in reproduction or
survival under conditions of low population
density
* There is less genetic variation in a small
population and this may affect the population’s
ability to adapt to environmental change

Small population size may result in the
breakdown of social structures that are integral
to successful cooperative behaviours (mating,
foraging, defence)

64
Q

Interspecific competition

A

relationship that affects the populations of two or more species adversely

Exploitation competition occurs when species indirectly interact with one another but affect the availability of shared resources

Interference competition results when species directly interact and prevent others from occupying a habitat or accessing resources
within it

65
Q

competitive exclusion principle

A

states that “complete competitors” cannot coexist
–
Complete competitors are two species that live in
the same place and have exactly the same ecological
requirements

If population of complete competitor A increases
the least bit faster than complete competitor
population B, then A will eventually outcompete
B (B will become extinct)

66
Q

Ecological Niches

A

can be defined as a species response to the total of all abiotic and biotic factors in its environment

Hutchinsons concept of the niche as an “n-dimensional hypervolume”

Niche dimensions include resources and conditions

a single habitat may support a number of niches

some species may interact in some niche dimensions but not others

limited by the fact that there could be limitless niche dimensions

67
Q

Fundamental Niche

A

full range of conditions and resources under which it can survive and reproduce

68
Q

Realized niche

A

portion of the fundamental niche that the species actually exploits

often regulated by competition, some species only use a portion of a habitat when grown in competition but would use all of it if grown alone

69
Q

How do some competitors coexist? (Niche differentiation)

A

differences in the range of resources used or environmental tolerances

bird on diff parts of tree example (resources partitioning)

70
Q

Character displacement

A

involves a shift in feeding niche that subsequently affects a species morphology behaviour or physiology

71
Q

Functional response

A

The relationship between the per capita rate of
consumption and the number of prey.

relationship between the per capita predation rate (number
of prey consumed per unit time) and prey population size
* Its shape depends on several factors:
– Predator time budgets related to chasing, killing,
eating, and digesting prey
– Predator search images and prey switching

72
Q

Numerical response

A

An increased consumption of prey results in an
increase in predator reproduction

The ability of a predator population to regulate a prey population is related to the response of predators to increase in number in relation to prey
– Predator populations grow slowly in comparison to
those of their prey and dynamics lag that of prey

73
Q

Functional response graphs

A

Type 1 - common with sessile organisms

Type 2 - more common like wolf/ moose

Type 3 - sigmoidal shape shows initial inefficiency

There are several possible explanations for a sigmoidal type III response:
– Availability of cover: the susceptibility of prey individuals will increase as the population grows and hiding places become filled
– Search image: the ability of a predator to recognize a prey species will increase as the prey population size increases
– Prey switching: the act of a predator turning to a
more abundant alternate prey

74
Q

Keystone species

A

species that are critical to maintaining biodiversity

ie predators can allow the coexistence of competing prey when the stronger competitor is favoured by the predator
prevents competitive exclusion

75
Q

Apparent competition

A

An interaction between two prey species, where the presence of one prey has a negative effect on the other, but not the other way around
– E.g., when one species has a negative effect on another by bringing to it exposure to a pathogen or predator
– Depends strongly on the effectiveness of the predator

76
Q

Chemical defenses

A

Chemical defence is widespread
– Alarm pheromones induce flight reactions in members
of the same and related species
– Odorous secretions repel predators
– Storage or synthesis of toxins and poisons

77
Q

aposematism

A

Animals that are toxic to predators LOOK toxic

78
Q

Müllerian mimicry

A

is the similar colour pattern shared by many unpalatable or venomous species
– This is effective because the predator has tobe exposed to only one of the species before learning to stay away from all other species with the same warning colour patterns

79
Q

Batesian mimicry

A

occurs when an edible species mimics the inedible species (the model)
– Butterflies and snakes
– Mimicry is not limited to colour pattern (e.g., rattle-like
sound)

BIOL 228 (3 decks)

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