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Biol 213 > biol 213 unit 2 > Flashcards

biol 213 unit 2 Flashcards

1
Q

where does oxidative phosphorylation take place?

A

inner mitochondrial membrane

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2
Q

where does oxidative phosphorylation take place in aerobic prokaryotes?

A

plasma membrane

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3
Q

what happens to the activation-energy barrier after each step is catalyzed by an enzyme?

A

lowers activation-energy barrier

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4
Q

what is kinase general function?

A

adds phosphate

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5
Q

what is isomerase general function?

A

rearrangement

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6
Q

what is dehydrogenase’s general function?

A

catalyzes oxidation by removing H-

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7
Q

what is mutase’s general function?

A

shifts chemical group

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8
Q

what do catabolic pathways need to accept electrons from oxidation?

A

NAD+

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9
Q

what is the energy producing step in cellular respiration?

A

-6
-makes ATP and NADH
-oxidation occurs

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10
Q

what happens in steps 7 and 10?

A

-substrate-level phosphorylation
-transfer P to ADP

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11
Q

what drives steps 6 and 7?

A

coupled reactions

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12
Q

what is pyruvate converted into in muscle cells?

A

lactate

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13
Q

what is pyruvate converted into in yeast cells?

A

ethanol, CO2

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14
Q

what is the goal of fermentation?

A

regenerate NAD+ from NADH

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15
Q

what kind of sugar do animal cells store to provide energy at times of fasting?

A

-glycogen
-stored in cytoplasm of liver and muslce cells

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16
Q

what regulates the balance between glycogen synthesis and breakdown?

A

intracellular signaling pathways controlled by hormones:
insulin, epinephrine, glucagon

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17
Q

what is starch?

A

-how plants store glucose
-stored in chloroplasts (along with fats)

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18
Q

how are fats stored in plants and animals?

A

-lipid droplets
-triacylglycerols

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19
Q

how did chloroplasts and mitochondria evolve?

A

form bacteria that were engulfed by ancestral cells

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20
Q

how do chloroplasts and mitochondria reproduce?

A

fission

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21
Q

what are MERRF and myoclonic epilepsy?

A

-defects in the proteins required for ETC
-experience muscle weakness, heart problems, epilepsy

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22
Q

what can mitochondria do in terms of adaptation?

A

can adjust their location, shape, and number to suit that particular cell’s needs

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23
Q

why would mitochondria stay fixed in 1 location?

A

supply ATP directly to a site of unusually high energy consumption

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24
Q

when do mitochondria stay fixed in 1 location?

A

-in muscle cells- mitochondria are close to contractile apparatus
-in sperm- mitochondria are wrapped tightly around the motile flagellum

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25
Q

mitochondria matrix

A

contains enzymes for citric acid cycle

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26
Q

inner mitochondrial membrane

A

-has cristae
-site of oxidative phosphorylation
-helps convert energy from NADH/FADH2 phosphate bond for ATP

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27
Q

outer mitochondrial membrane

A

-contains porins
-very permeable to small things

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28
Q

outer mitochondrial membrane

A

contains porins

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29
Q

what are porins?

A

channel-forming proteins

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30
Q

intermembrane space

A

contains enzymes for ATP passing out of matrix to phosphorylate

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31
Q

where is pH higher in mitochondria?

A

pH higher in matrix (less H+)
pH lower in intermembrane space (more H+)

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32
Q

what do redox reactions depend on?

A

Delta G
e- transfer (depends on relative e- affinities)

33
Q

what are iron-sulfur centers?

A

have low e- affinity
have serve as e- acceptors

34
Q

what are cytochrome proteins?

A

-transfer proteins
-increase in redox potential (delta E) the further down the ETC they go

35
Q

what is cytochrome C oxidase>

A

-has the highest redox potential of all
-oxidized cytochrome c (removes e-)
-has high e- affinity

36
Q

why is oxygen an electon sink?

A

has high affinity to e-
but O2- is very dangerous

37
Q

what dos DNA consist of?

A

2 long polynucleotide chains held together by H bond between paired bases

38
Q

what are nucleotides composed of?

A

nitrogen base and 5-carbon sugar bonded by covalent phosphodiester bonds

39
Q

what does the backbone of DNA include?

A

sugar phosphate

40
Q

what are nucleotides held together by?

A

phosphodiester bonds between 5’ phophate and 3’ hydroxyl

41
Q

how many bonds does A T need?

A

2

42
Q

how many bonds does G C need?

A

3

43
Q

what is gene expression?

A

the process by which the nucleotide sequence is transcribed into the nucleotide sequence of a protein

44
Q

for a majority of genes, the final product is____

A

RNA molecule itself

45
Q

what are chromosomes?

A

long, double-stranded DNA molecules packed in

46
Q

what is chromatin?

A

DNA that has been compacted by proteins

47
Q

what are homologous chromosomes?

A

-2 copies of every chromosome
-1 from mom 1 from dad

48
Q

what is an example of non-homologous pairs?

A

sex chromosomes

49
Q

what is the purpose of staining chromosomes with dyes?

A

distinguishing between DNA that is rich in A-T nucleotide pairs and G-C pairs

50
Q

what is a karyotype?

A

an ordered display of the full set of 46 human chromosomes

51
Q

what is an example of a change that can be detected on a karyotype?

A

if a chromosome is lost or switched

52
Q

what is a gene?

A

-a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for making a particular protein or RNA molecule
-the functional units of heredity

53
Q

what is a genome?

A

the total genetic info carried by a complete set of the chromosomes in the cell/ organism

54
Q

in many eukaryotes, genes include an excess of _______

A

interspread, noncoding DNA

55
Q

what do telomeres do?

A

-contain repeated nucleotide sequences for the ends of chromosomes to be replicated
-serve as caps that keep chromosome tips from being mistaken by cell as broken DNA

56
Q

what do centromeres do?

A

allow duplicated chromosomes to be separated during M phase

57
Q

what are mitotic chromosomes?

A

chromosomes in M phase when DNA coils up and condenses severely

58
Q

what is the nucleolus?

A

the interphase nucleus
-is large enough to be seen in microscope

59
Q

what is the purpose of nuncleous?

A

it is where ribosomal RNAs are created and combine with proteins to form ribosomes

60
Q

_____ occupy their own distinct territories within the nucleus

A

interphase chromosomes

61
Q

what are histone and nonhistone proteins?

A

proteins that bind to DNA to form eukaryotic chromosomes

62
Q

what is chromatin?

A

the complex of both classes of proteins along with nuclear DNA

63
Q

what does the nucleosome do?

A

convert the DNA molecules in an interphase nucleus into a chromatin fiber

64
Q

what is responsible for nucleosome packing?

A

histones

65
Q

what does the nucleosome consist of?

A

-8 histone proteins 2x (H2A H2B H3 H4)
-147 nucleotide pairs that wind around histone octamer

aka nucleosome core and DNA linker

66
Q

what do nucleases do?

A

cut the DNA by breaking the phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides

67
Q

what do chromatin-remodeling complexes do?

A

use the energy of ATP hydrolysis to change the position of the DNA wrapped around nucleosomes

68
Q

what do histone-modifying enzymes do?

A

catalyze the reversible chemical modification of histones

69
Q

what do chromatin-remoding complexes and histone-modifying enzymes do together?

A

condense and relax stretches of chromatin - allowing local chromatin structure to change rapidly according to cell’s needs

70
Q

what is special about interphase chromosomes?

A

-chromatin isn’t uniformly packed
-regions of the chromosome containing the genes that are actively expressed are generally more extended

71
Q

what are heterochomatins?

A

the most highly condensed form of interphase chromatin

72
Q

what is the euchromatin?

A

the rest of interphase chromatin

73
Q

what is responsible for the patchwork coloration of callico cats?

A

female mammals evolved mechanism for permanently inactivating 1 of 2 X

74
Q

what does B-globin deactivation cause?

A

anemia

75
Q

when a cell divides, what can it pass to its 2 daughter cells?

A

-histone modifications
-chromatin structure
-gene expression patterns

76
Q

what is the final product of a new DNA strand?

A

a complementary in nucleotide sequence to template

77
Q

DNA polymeraze 3

A

-monitors base-pairing between each incoming nucleoside triphosphate and template strand
-can correct errors through proofreading
-drives movement of replication fork
-replication machine
-adds deoxyribonucleotides to 3- end of DNA strand

78
Q

what molecule can correct errors through proofreading?

A

DNA polymeraze 3

79
Q

what is proofreading?

A

enzyme checks whether previously added nucleotide is correctly paired before adding next nucleotide to a growing DNA strand

Biol 213 (3 decks)

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