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BioFinal Pt2 > Biofinalpt2 > Flashcards

Biofinalpt2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is a gene?

A

An organized unit of DNA sequences that enables a segment of DNA to be transcribed into RNA and ultimately results in the formation of a functional product

A gene is composed of the promoter, regulatory sequence, transcribed region, and terminator.

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2
Q

What is the function of the promoter in a gene?

A

The site in the DNA where RNA polymerase binds to begin transcription.

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3
Q

What are regulatory sequences?

A

The site binding to regulatory proteins that control whether a gene is turned on or off.

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4
Q

What is the transcription region of a gene?

A

A region of DNA that is transcribed into an RNA molecule.

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5
Q

What is a terminator in transcription?

A

A sequence that causes the RNA strand to be released from the transcription complex.

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6
Q

What is required for the initiation of transcription?

A

Transcription factor (TFs) binding to the promoter region of a gene.

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7
Q

True or False: In eukaryotes, RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region that contains a TATA box.

A

True.

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8
Q

In which direction is the DNA template read during transcription?

A

From 3’ to 5’ direction.

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9
Q

What is the direction of RNA synthesis during transcription?

A

From 5’ to 3’ direction.

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10
Q

What types of RNA are produced during transcription?

A
  • mRNA
  • tRNA
  • rRNA
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11
Q

Where does prokaryotic transcription occur?

A

In the cytoplasm.

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12
Q

Where does eukaryotic transcription occur?

A

In the nucleus.

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13
Q

How many types of RNA polymerase are present in eukaryotic cells?

A

Three types: RNA polymerase I, II, and III.

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14
Q

What is the function of RNA polymerase I?

A

Transcribes rRNA genes.

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15
Q

What is the function of RNA polymerase II?

A

Transcribes mRNA, miRNA, snRNA, and snoRNA genes.

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16
Q

What is the function of RNA polymerase III?

A

Transcribes tRNA and 5S rRNA genes.

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17
Q

What are exons?

A

Coding portions of a gene.

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18
Q

What are introns?

A

Non-coding portions of a gene that are excised from RNA transcription.

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19
Q

What is RNA splicing?

A

The removal of introns and joining of exons in eukaryotic RNA.

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20
Q

What is the biological function of introns?

A
  • Alternate splicing generates different mRNA molecules
  • Contributes to genetic diversity
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21
Q

What is a 5’ cap in mRNA processing?

A

A 7-methylguanosine attached to the mature eukaryotic mRNAs at the 5’ end.

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22
Q

What is a 3’ poly-A tail?

A

A poly A tail added to the most mature eukaryotic mRNAs at the 3’ end.

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23
Q

What is the genetic code?

A

The nucleotide information that specifies the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.

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24
Q

How many possible codons are there?

A

64 possible codons.

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25
Q

What is a start codon?

A

AUG, which codes for methionine.

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26
Q

What are the three stop codons?

A
  • UAA
  • UGA
  • UAG
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27
Q

What is codon usage bias?

A

Different organisms may prefer certain codons that encode the same amino acid over others.

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28
Q

What is the coding strand of DNA?

A

The strand of DNA not used as a template for transcription, also called the sense strand.

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29
Q

What is the template strand of DNA?

A

The DNA strand that mRNA is built from, also called the antisense strand.

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30
Q

What is a mutation?

A

The permanent alteration of the nucleotide sequence of the genome of an organism.

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31
Q

What is a base substitution mutation?

A

The replacement of one nucleotide and its partner in the complementary DNA strand with another pair of nucleotides.

32
Q

What is a missense mutation?

A

A point mutation that results in a change in a codon that codes for a different amino acid.

33
Q

What is a silent mutation?

A

A mutation where a change in a DNA codon does not result in a change in the amino acid specified by the gene.

34
Q

What is a nonsense mutation?

A

A mutation in which a sense codon is changed to a chain termination codon.

35
Q

What is a frameshift mutation?

A

A mutation caused by insertion or deletion of a number of nucleotides in a DNA sequence that is not divisible by three.

36
Q

What are the two main processes of protein synthesis?

A
  • Transcription
  • Translation
37
Q

Where does transcription occur in eukaryotes?

A

In the nucleus.

38
Q

Where does translation occur in eukaryotes?

A

In the cytoplasm.

39
Q

What is the role of tRNA in translation?

A

tRNA carries amino acids to the ribosome and matches its anticodon with the codon on mRNA.

40
Q

What is the structure of tRNA?

A

Small RNAs (75-90 bp) that can base-pair with themselves, forming a cloverleaf pattern.

41
Q

What is aminoacylation?

A

The process of adding an amino acid to tRNA.

42
Q

What are the three binding sites of a ribosome?

A
  • A site (Aminoacyl-tRNA binding site)
  • P site (Peptidyl-tRNA binding site)
  • E site (Exit site)
43
Q

What is ribosomal RNA (rRNA) primarily responsible for?

A

Both the structure and function of ribosomes.

44
Q

What occurs during the initiation phase of translation?

A

The Met-tRNA/small ribosomal subunit complex binds to the 5’ cap of the mRNA.

45
Q

What is the role of the release factor in translation termination?

A

Binds in the A-site when a stop codon is present, causing translation to terminate.

46
Q

What is cellular respiration?

A

The process by which cells generate ATP through a series of redox reactions.

47
Q

What is an aerobe?

A

An organism that grows or metabolizes only in the presence of oxygen.

48
Q

What is an anaerobe?

A

An organism that grows only in the absence of oxygen.

49
Q

What is a facultative anaerobe?

A

An organism capable of carrying out aerobic respiration but able to switch to fermentation when oxygen is unavailable.

50
Q

What are the four stages of aerobic respiration?

A
  • Glycolysis
  • Formation of acetyl-CoA
  • Krebs cycle
  • Electron transport chain/Chemiosmosis
51
Q

Where does glycolysis occur?

A

In the cytoplasmic fluid.

52
Q

What is produced during glycolysis?

A
  • 2 pyruvate
  • 2 ATP
  • 2 NADH
53
Q

What happens in the Krebs cycle?

A

The metabolic cycle that completes the breakdown of glucose to CO2.

54
Q

What is the electron transport chain?

A

A sequence of electron-carrier molecules that shuttle electrons during redox reactions.

55
Q

What is the total yield of ATP, NADH, and FADH2 from glycolysis?

A

2 ATP, 2 NADH

Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and is the first step in cellular respiration.

56
Q

What do NADH and FADH2 molecules carry to the electron transport chains?

A

High-energy electrons

These electrons are derived from the oxidation of glucose.

57
Q

Where is the electron transport chain located?

A

Inner mitochondrial membrane

This location is comparable to the bacterial plasma membrane.

58
Q

What are the four large enzyme complexes in the electron transport chain?

A
  • NADH-Q reductive complex
  • Succinate-Q reductase complex
  • Cytochrome b/c1 reductase complex
  • Cytochrome c oxidase complex

These complexes facilitate electron transfer and proton pumping.

59
Q

What is chemiosmosis?

A

The production of ATP using the energy of proton gradient across membranes

It powers most ATP synthesis in cells.

60
Q

What is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain?

A

O2

Oxygen is essential for aerobic respiration.

61
Q

What is the maximum yield of ATP from one glucose molecule during aerobic respiration?

A

36 to 38 ATPs

This includes contributions from glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

62
Q

What is the role of ATP Synthase in ATP production?

A

Facilitates diffusion of protons down their gradient

This process drives the phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP.

63
Q

What are the three main types of organic molecules that can serve as fuel?

A
  • Carbohydrates
  • Proteins
  • Fats

Each type is converted into intermediates for cellular respiration.

64
Q

What is fermentation?

A

An ATP-generating process in the absence of O2

It allows organisms to survive on glycolysis alone.

65
Q

What is produced during alcoholic fermentation?

A

CO2 and ethanol

This process occurs in yeasts and certain bacteria.

66
Q

What is the main function of fermentation?

A
  • Allows survival without oxygen
  • Removes toxic NADH
  • Replenishes NAD+

Fermentation is less efficient than aerobic respiration.

67
Q

What is the primary function of chloroplasts?

A

Absorbs sunlight and synthesizes organic food molecules

Chloroplasts are essential for photosynthesis.

68
Q

What are the two unique reactions in chloroplasts during photosynthesis?

A
  • Light Reaction
  • Carbon Fixation

These reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes and stroma, respectively.

69
Q

What is the main pigment in chloroplasts?

A

Chlorophyll

Chlorophyll absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.

70
Q

What is the role of Photosystem II?

A

Absorbs light and energizes electrons

It also pulls electrons from water, releasing O2.

71
Q

What is the Calvin Cycle?

A

The series of reactions that fix carbon into organic compounds

It uses ATP and NADPH produced in the light reactions.

72
Q

What is the first step of the Calvin Cycle?

A

Bicarbonate Fixation

CO2 is fixed to ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) by Rubisco.

73
Q

What is produced from the Calvin Cycle that can lead to glucose formation?

A

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)

Two molecules of G3P can be used to form glucose or fructose.

74
Q

What is the main difference between cyclic and noncyclic electron flow?

A

Cyclic flow produces only ATP, while noncyclic produces both ATP and NADPH

Cyclic flow does not involve water splitting or O2 production.

75
Q

What is the relationship between light energy and photon absorption in photosynthesis?

A

Light energy is absorbed by pigments, exciting electrons

This energy transfer initiates the light-dependent reactions.

BioFinal Pt2 (2 decks)

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