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bioenergetics > bioe 1 > Flashcards

bioe 1 Flashcards

1
Q

ionic bonds

A

exchange of electrons from valence shell
atoms become ions
electrostatic force of attraction
high activation energy to break ionic bonds

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2
Q

non-polarised covalent bonds

A

shared electrons
not ionic charge
weaker bond than ionic

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3
Q

polarised covalent bonds

A

unequal sharing of electrons
usually atom with higher affinity for electrons being shared
one atom more electron dense so shared electrons spend more time circulating atom
partial delta positive and delta negative charges

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4
Q

conservation of mass

A

mass neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions

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5
Q

synthesis

A

a + b -> ab
anabolic
endergonic
condensation
amino acids to proteins

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6
Q

decomposition

A

ab-> a + b
catabolic
exergonic
hydrolysis
glycogen to glucose

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7
Q

exchange

A

ab + c -> ac+ b
anabolic + catabolic
endergonic and exergonic
glucose + ATP

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8
Q

condensation

A

anabolic process
yields water
e.g. two glucose molecules -> maltose

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9
Q

hydrolysis

A

catabolic process
ATP hydrolysis essential for muscle contractions
hydrolysis of a dipeptide into two amino acids

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10
Q

increase co2

A

dissolves in h2o
releases h+
creates carbonic acid

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11
Q

increase h+

A

leads to acidosis (increase respiratory and pulmonary response to overcome)
eventually leads to fatigue

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12
Q

metabolic acidosis

A

accumulation of metabolic acid

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13
Q

salts

A

ionic bonds
structural components
electrolyte properties
dissociate in water
damaging in high conc

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14
Q

acids and bases

A

covalent bonds
metabolic control
homeostasis (reversible)
dissociate in water
damaging in high conc

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15
Q

acids

A

proton donors
dissociates in water

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16
Q

hcl

A

in stomach for digestion
ph enzymes most efficient

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17
Q

carbonic acid

A

weak acid
chemical buffering

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18
Q

citric acid

A

second stage of carbohydrate breakdown

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19
Q

strong acid

A

fully dissociates in water
irreversible

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20
Q

weak acid

A

partial dissociation
reversible and conc driven

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21
Q

bases

A

proton acceptor
dissociate in water
release oh-

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22
Q

concentartion

A

molarity
moles per litre

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23
Q

pH

A

quantitative measure of acidity or alkalinity of solution
ph = -log10 [h+]
distilled water [h+] = [oh-] pH = 7
human body pH average 7.4

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24
Q

buffers

A

chemical and physiological mechanisms that moderate change in [h+]
increase [h+] = acidosis
decrease [h+] = alkolosis

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25
Q

physiological buffers

A

second line of defence
only occurs when change in ph is already occurred
renal buffering
ventilatory buffering
pulmonary ventilation

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26
Q

renal buffering

A

response time hours / days
regulate acidity through complex chemical reactions that restores bicarbonate into blood
secrete ammonia and h+ into urine
only pathway to eliminate acids other than carbonic acid

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27
Q

ventilatory buffering

A

faster response
changes the co2 conc
increase h+ stimulates ventilatory control
increase alveolar ventilation
increase co2 removal

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27
Q

ventilatory buffering

A

faster response
changes the co2 conc
increase h+ stimulates ventilatory control
increase alveolar ventilation
increase co2 removal

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28
Q

pulmonary ventilation

A

measures chemical state of blood in the medulla
variations in arterial
- partial pressure o2
- pp co2
- pH
- temp
adjust ventilation and maintain arterial blood chemistry

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29
Q

alkalosis and ventilation

A

decrease co2
due to hyperventilation (lots of breathing out so co2 forced out)

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30
Q

acidosis and ventilation

A

increase co2
due to hypoventilation (decrease ventilation)
not breathing out much co2 cause build up

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31
Q

pre exercise hyperventilation

A

causes alveolar co2 partial pressure to decrease
have a larger increase in co2 before needing to breathe

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32
Q

intense exercise on acid-base balance

A

increase [h+] from co2 production and lactate formation
large temp disturbance in acid-base balance
low pH cause nausea, headaches and dizziness

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33
Q

energy

A

the strength and vitality required for sustained physical or mental activity

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34
Q

thermodynamics law I

A

energy cannot be created nor destroyed but simply changed from one form to another

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35
Q

fuel

A

compound for which some of its chemical energy can be transformed into other forms when a chemical reaction takes place
triglycerides stored in adipose tissue
glucose used in brain
amino acids

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36
Q

glycogen

A

stored in liver and muscle
stored with water
1g glycogen with about 3g water

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37
Q

triacylglycerol

A

stored in adipose tissue
huge range in body fat from 2% to 70%

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38
Q

thermodynamics law II

A

all potential energy in a system degrades to unusable form of kinetic or heat energy
process of change reflects entropy

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39
Q

mechanical work

A

muscle contraction
convert chemical to mechanical energy
energy supports myosin head crossbridge formation

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40
Q

chemical work

A

maintenance and growth
muscle tissue synthesis in response to chronic overload in training

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41
Q

transport work

A

high -> low conc in diffusion = no energy
low -> high conc in active transport = energy
na+/ k+ -> atpase

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42
Q

Kcal

A

amount energy to increase temp of 1kg water by 1 degrees
1Kcal = 4.184 kj

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43
Q

joule

A

is the energy expended when 1 newton moves a distance of 1m

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44
Q

measurement of food energy

A

bomb calorimeters measures gross energy value of macronutrients
direct calorimetry measures heat liberated as food burns
heat of combustion is total energy value of the food

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45
Q

gross and net energy in food

A

gross energy from bomb calorimetry not the same as net energy due to protein
body cannot oxidize nitrogen component of protein
nitrogen combines with hydrogen to form urea and excreted from kidneys as urine
elimination of hydrogen in manner represents loss of approx 19% of proteins potential energy

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46
Q

coefficient of digestibility

A

ability of body’s digestive processes to extract potential energy

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47
Q

Atwater general factors

A

energy from food is corrected for loses in digestion, absorption and urinary excretion of urea
much less than calculated in a bomb calorimeter and what is available for fuel from what we digest
4Kcal / g dietary carbohydrates
4Kcal/ g dietary protein
9 Kcal / g dietary lipid
7 Kcal / g dietary alcohol

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48
Q

enzymes

A

specific protein catalyst that accelerates forward and reverses rates of chemical reactions without being consumed or changed
lowers the activation energy

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49
Q

lock and key theory

A

substrate matches active site of enzyme
enzyme-substrate complex splits to yield product

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50
Q

induced fit theory

A

in presence of substrate induces the active site of the enzyme to change shape slightly
key for delayed action needed for enzymes

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51
Q

allosteric enzymes

A

can be positively and negatively effected
have separate allosteric sites

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52
Q

positive effector allosteric enzyme

A

increases enzyme activity
less time to Km

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53
Q

negative effector allosteric enzyme

A

reduces enzyme activity

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54
Q

impact pH on enzyme

A

extreme pH denatures enzyme and changes struct
smaller changes modify behaviour

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55
Q

effect of temp on enzyme

A

increase temp increases rate of reaction
thermal denature occurs >50 and reaction rate falls
optimal range for humans 30-40

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56
Q

homeostasis

A

ability of body or cell to seek and maintain condition of equilibrium or stability within its internal environment when dealing with external chnages

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57
Q

positive feedback loop

A

expands initial stimulus response towards change direction

58
Q

cell membrane

A

primary function is barrier
regulates rate of transport into the cell
provides surface for attachment proteins
phospholipid bilayer
- hydrophilic head
- hydrophobic tails
- fluidity

59
Q

passive transport

A

simple diffusion
facilitated diffusion
osmosis
filtration

60
Q

simple diffusion

A

passive movement of molecules from higher to lower conc
water molecules, o2, co2, small uncharged, lipid soluble molecules

61
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

transport of substances across a membrane from area higher to lower conc by means of carrier molecule
can be voltage dependent
can be open or shut

62
Q

osmosis

A

movement of water from higher water potential to a lower water potential

63
Q

isotonic solution osmosis

A

no net movement water

64
Q

hypotonic solution osmosis

A

water moves into cell
water potential of solution higher
may cause cell to burst if wall weak or damaged (osmotic lysis)

65
Q

hypertonic solution osmosis

A

water moves out of the cell
water potential of solution lower
causes cytoplasm to shrink (plasmolysis)

66
Q

filtration

A

movement of water and solutes across membrane due to hydrostatic pressure from cardiovascular system
e.g. nephron in the kidney
filters out water, ions, drugs and urea
higher blood pressure = higher filtration

67
Q

active transport

A

bulk transport
- endocytosis
- exocytosis
- phagocytosis
primary active transport
secondary active transport

68
Q

primary active transport

A

use of ATP to provide energy for movement against conc gradient
Na+/K+ pump most common
takes Na+ out and K+ into the cell against conc gardient
important to maintain resting membrane potential

69
Q

secondary active transport

A

ion conc gradient created by primary active transport helps to move another substance into the cell
either symporter or antiporter

70
Q

symporter

A

movement same direction to ion

71
Q

antiporter

A

movement opposite direction to ion

72
Q

bomb calorimetry

A

burn something in oxygen atmosphere
measure temp change of water due to combustion and determine how much energy released

73
Q

steps of bomb calorimetry

A
  1. weigh the sample
  2. place sample in bomb
  3. pressurise the bomb with oxygen
  4. place the water in calorimeter
  5. calorimeter into insulated bucket and bomb connected to electrodes and then fully submerged in the water
  6. leave for about five mins until steady temp reached
  7. fire
    8.watch temp change and record every 30 secs until steady
74
Q

ATP

A

composed of adenine, ribose and phosphate
energy release when phosphate bond is broken
exergonic reaction and hydrolysis
cannot be accumulated or transferred from cell to cell
cells die if no more ATP generated
maintenance of ATP/ADP conc ratio in cells usually takes precedence over cell function
50:1

75
Q

ATP:ADP ratio

A

50:1

76
Q

energy released by hydrolysis of ATP

A

liberated for muscle contraction
7.3 Kcal per mol
catalysed by ATPase or adenosine triphosphatase

77
Q

ATP formation from ADP

A

2ADP ->ATP + AMP
catalysed by adenylate kinase
more energy in one ATP than two ADPs

78
Q

ATP splitting

A

ATP hydrolysis doesn’t require oxygen
energy rapidly available
transport of atmospheric 02 to cites of requirement is long process so would impair immediate energy source

79
Q

ATP storage and use

A

ATP heavy compound so limited stored at a time
80-100g of ATP at any time
at exhaustion not ran out of ATP
rapid re synthesis essential to allow normal functioning
replenishment sites present in mitochondria (aerobic) and cystol (anaerobic)

80
Q

PCr

A

instant replenishment of ATP achieved by high energy phosphate phosphocreatine
mediated by creatine kinase enzyme
cells store about 18 mmol per kg of muscle
PCr theoretically depleted within about 8-12 secs
provides energy ‘buffer’ while longer term energy pathways ‘getting going’

81
Q

mass

A

amount of matter in an object (g/kg)

82
Q

weight

A

product of mass and gravity on earth (N)
1kg = 9.81 N

83
Q

density

A

mass per unit of material substance
mass / vol g/cm^3

84
Q

molecules

A

two atoms of the same element

85
Q

compound

A

two atoms of different elements

86
Q

free radicals

A

charged atoms or group with unpaired electron in outmost shell
highly reactive
unstable

87
Q

enthalpy change (∆H )

A

change in energy of the reactants when turned into products
measured as total heat energy change
negative delta H = exergonic
positive delta H = endergonic

88
Q

entropy change (∆s)

A

measure of energy dispersal
energy wants to spread from conc to spread out
feasible when delta s > 0

89
Q

free energy change (∆G)

A

max energy available from reaction that can be harnessed to be useful
energy released ∆G<0 and exergonic reaction
∆G>0 not feasible
∆G = ∆H-T∆s

90
Q

enzymes in redox reactions

A

dehydrogenases (removal of H)
oxidases (removal of O)

91
Q

coenzymes

A

less specific than enzymes
temporary carriers
reversible electron and hydrogen acceptors
NAD+
FAD
some created in liver

92
Q

transamination

A

transfer of amino group from an amino acid to an alpha-ketoacid in presence of a transaminase
important for production of non-essential amino acids
often include use of glutamate

93
Q

deamination

A

removal of ammonia group
amino acid forms alpha keto-acid and ammonia

94
Q

glutamine synthesis

A

from glutamate
has 2 nitrogens
gluconeogenic precursor -> enables net synthesis of glucose

95
Q

nitrogen excretion

A

catabolic (breaking down)
removes nitrogen via ammonia in purine nucleotide cycle
ammonia is toxic
ammonia -> urea -> urine -> excreted

96
Q

proteins

A

contain amino acids
joined by peptide bonds
peptides 2-10 amino acids
every protein has function
no storage

97
Q

functions of proteins

A

enzymes
cell membrane transporters and receptors
transport and signal
structure of cell, muscle, bones and connective tissue
regulatory function: immune system and hormones

98
Q

primary struct proteins

A

how amino acids are linked
the amino acid sequence

99
Q

secondary struct proteins

A

backbone torsion angles in amino acid residues due to hydrogen bonds

100
Q

tertiary struct proteins

A

coordinates of all the atoms in the protein

101
Q

quaternary struct proteins

A

position and orientation of all proteins in a complex

102
Q

causes changes in protein struct

A

temperature
pH
enzymatic action

103
Q

temp changing protein struct

A

increase kinetic energy breaks hydrogen bonds denaturing proteins

104
Q

pH changing protein struct

A

causes ionic and hydrogen bonds to break

105
Q

enzymatic action changing protein struct

A

remove unwanted and ineffective part of amino acid chain

106
Q

non essential amino acids

A

can be made in the body

107
Q

essential amino acids

A

need to be taken in via diet

108
Q

extraction of energy from glucose through

A

glycolysis
TCA cycle
oxidative phosphorylation

109
Q

glycolysis

A

start product glucose or glycogen
takes place in cytoplasm
aerobic glycolysis -> pyruvate
anaerobic glycolysis -> lactate
requires glucose, enzymes, NAD+, ATP , ADP
produces pyruvate, NADH, ATP

110
Q

lactate

A

produced all the time
rate of glycolysis faster than subsequent stages of CHO metabolism
high metabolic rate NADH high and NAD+ low
favours conversion of pyruvate to lactate
NAD+ produced helps maintain glycolytic rate

111
Q

beta oxidation

A

occurs in mitochondria
2c fragments removed from carboxyl end of fatty acid
rate limiting enzymes

112
Q

lipoprotein lipase

A

breaks down TAG to take it up into tissue

113
Q

hormone sensitive lipase

A

breaks down TAG within tissue

114
Q

adipose tissue

A

not h2o soluble
break down TAG ->glycerol -> gluconeogenesis process -> glucose
fatty acids -> ketogenesis -> ketones

115
Q

endogenous

A

in the body

116
Q

exogenous

A

external from the body from food digested

117
Q

adipose tissue

A

TAG - main storage form
9Kcal per gram
5Kg adipose same as 31Kg glycogen
specialist tissue
unlimited storage

118
Q

mobilisation of stored TAG and oxidation of FFA

A
  1. release of FFA from TAG
  2. alpha- oxidation of FFA (branched chain FFA only)
  3. beta- oxidation of FFA -> TCA cycle + ETC ->ATP
119
Q

release FFA from TAG

A
  1. lipolysis
  2. fate of glycerol
  3. fate of FFA
120
Q

lipolysis

A

hormone sensitive lipase
triglyceride lipase -> removes 1st fatty acid
diglyceride lipase -> remove 2nd fatty acid
monoglyceride lipase -> remove 3rd
creates 3 FFA + glycerol

121
Q

fate of glycerol

A

not used in adipose
glycerol phosphate
dihydroxyacetone phosphate
glucose glyceraldehyde

122
Q

fate of FFA

A

FFA move out and bind to Albumin
carried to tissues
transport across membrane by fatty acid binging proteins
branched chain FFA undergo alpha oxidation
coA derivatives

123
Q

phospholipids

A

component of cell membrane
a diglyceride (2 fatty acids)
hydrophobic fatty acid
hydrophilic phosphate

124
Q

function of lipids

A

maintain functional and structural integrity of cell membrane
surfactant - reduce surface tension from breathing and prevent lungs from collapsing
provide insulation and protection to organs
hormone and neurotransmitter action

125
Q

sterols

A

found naturally in foods
compound with multiple ring structure
synthesis of steroid hormones and vitamin D

126
Q

FFA

A

free fatty acids
even numbers of carbons (4-28)
carboxyl group and methyl group either end
hydrogen, carbon and oxygen
classification by no carbons, double bonds and location of first double bond

127
Q

no of carbons FFA

A

short chain -> less than 8
medium chain -> 8-14
long chain -> 16-28

128
Q

cis- fat molecule

A

hydrogens on same side of double bond
found in nature

129
Q

trans- fat molecule

A

hydrogens on opposite side of double bond
milk and butter

130
Q

hydrogenation

A

removes double bond
protects from oxidation
texture
polyunsaturated act like saturated

131
Q

triglycerides (TAG)

A

1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids
95% of all dietary lipids
storage in form of adipose tissue
9 Kcal per gram
1kg = 7000 Kcal

132
Q

role and function of triglycerides

A

energy -> muscle contraction
insulation -> TAG is a poor conductor
protection -> vital organs
spare other fuels -> carbs sparing

133
Q

carbohydrate

A

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
monosaccharide, disaccharide and polysaccharide
carbonyl group (CHO)
glycosidic bonds

134
Q

blood glucose

A

normal conc 3-5 mmol/L (euglycemia)
regulated by hormones
primary cerebral fuel

135
Q

glucogenesis

A

formation of glycogen from sugar molecules

136
Q

gluconeogenesis

A

formation of glycogen from amino acids, fats and other noncarbohydrates

137
Q

glycogenolysis

A

breakdown of glycogen into glucose
catalysed by enzyme glycogen phosphorylase

138
Q

how to generate ATP

A

PCr
glycolysis
oxidative phosphorylation

139
Q

PCr in generating ATP

A

low capacity
max rate achieved in seconds

140
Q

glycolysis in generating ATP

A

intermediate capacity
intermediate rate

141
Q

oxidative phosphorylation in generating ATP

A

high capacity
low rate, max rate achieved in 1-3 mins

142
Q

ATP synthesis in cystol

A

glycolysis
PCr hydrolysis

143
Q

ATP synthesis in mitochondrion

A

TCA cycle, oxidative phosphorylation and beta- oxidation

bioenergetics (1 decks)

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