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BIOCHEM PRELIM REVIEWER Flashcards

1
Q

CELL

was the first person to use the term “cell”

A

Robert Hooke

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2
Q

He referred to the small
empty chambers in the structure of cork as cells.

A

Robert Hooke

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3
Q

concluded that all plant and animal
tissues were composed of cells

A

Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann

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4
Q

proposed the theory of biogenesis where cells only arise from preexisting cells.

A

Rudolf Virchow

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5
Q

is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms

A

cell

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6
Q

explores molecular
mechanisms of normal cellular processes
as well as diseases

A

Biochemistry

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7
Q

All higher living organisms including _______ are made up of cells

A

humans

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8
Q

Two major classes:

A
  • Prokaryotes
  • Eukaryotes
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9
Q

DNA is found in the nucleus of the cell

A

EUKARYOTES

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10
Q

DNA is not enclosed within the
membrane

A

PROKARYOTES

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11
Q

Contain membrane-bound
organelles which include mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, and Golgi complex

A

EUKARYOTES

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12
Q

Lack membrane-enclosed organelles

A

PROKARYOTES

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13
Q

Cell division involves mitosis.

A

EUKARYOTES

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14
Q

Usually divide by binary fission.

A

PROKARYOTES

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15
Q

Water accounts for about _______ of the weight of the cell.

A

70-75%

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16
Q

Organic compounds accounts for _________ of the cell weight.

A

25-30%

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17
Q

They are nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides
(carbohydrates) and lipids.

A

MOLECULAR COMPOSITION OF CELL

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18
Q

account for the rest of the cell weight.

A

Inorganic compounds

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19
Q

have a membrane-bound nucleus and a number of other
membrane-bound subcellular (internal) organelles, each of which has a specific
function.

A

EUKARYOTIC CELL

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20
Q

Structure: Phospholipid bilayer
containing cholesterol and proteins and
some carbohydrates; forms a selectively
permeable boundary of the cell.

A

PLASMA MEMBRANE

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21
Q

Functions: Acts as a physical barrier to
enclose cell contents; regulates material
movement into and out of the cell; functions in cell communication

A

PLASMA MEMBRANE

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22
Q

Function: It contains the DNA that
serves as the genetic material for
directing protein synthesis.

A

NUCLEUS

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23
Q

Structure: It is enclosed within a
double membrane called

A

nuclear
envelope

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24
Q

Structure: It is enclosed within a
double membrane called nuclear
envelope; contains

A

nucleolus

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25
Q

It consists of RNA and
proteins which functions in ribosomal
unit assembly

A

Nucleolus

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26
Q

It surrounds the
chromatin and the nucleoli.

A

Nucleoplasm

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27
Q
  • Structure: This can be seen between the
    plasma membrane and the nucleus where
    the other cellular elements are
    embedded
A

CYTOPLASM

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28
Q

are membrane-bound structures
which carry out specific metabolic activities
of the cell.

A

Organelles

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29
Q

provides support for organelles and
serves as the viscous fluid medium.

A

Cytosol

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30
Q

Function: It is responsible for various
cellular processes.

A

CYTOPLASM

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31
Q

Structure: Double-membrane-bound
organelles containing a circular strand of
DNA

A

MITOCHONDRIA

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32
Q

is highly permeable to
small molecules, due to the presence of a
pore-forming protein called porin.

A

Outer membrane

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33
Q

Outer membrane is highly permeable to
small molecules, due to the presence of a
pore-forming protein called

A

porin

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34
Q

contains many proteins that
participate in oxidative phosphorylation.

A

Intermembrane

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35
Q

has multiple folds
projecting inwards, called cristae.

A

Inner membrane

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36
Q

Inner membrane has multiple folds
projecting inwards, called

A

cristae

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37
Q

Function: It is responsible for the
production of energy in the form of ATP

A

MITOCHONDRIA

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38
Q

Structure: Spherical shaped
membrane bound organelles
formed from the golgi apparatus;
contain digestive enzymes

A

LYSOSOMES

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39
Q

The fluid inside lysosomes is
much more acidic, at about _______________ than the normal pH of about 7.0–
7.3

A

pH 4.8

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40
Q

Function: Digest microbes or
materials by the cell

A

LYSOSOMES

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41
Q

Structure: Extensive interconnected membrane
network that varies in shape; ribosomes attached
on the cytoplasmic surfaces

A

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

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42
Q

are involved in the protein
synthesis

A

Ribosomes

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43
Q

Functions: Modifies, transports, and stores
proteins produces by attached ribosomes

A

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

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44
Q

Structure: Extensive interconnected membrane
network lacking ribosomes

A

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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45
Q

Structure: Series of several
elongated, flattened saclike
membranous structures.

A

GOLGI APPARATUS

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46
Q

Functions: Modifies, packages, and
sorts materials, that arrive from the
endoplasmic reticulum in transport
vesicles

A

GOLGI APPARATUS

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47
Q

transport cellular material.
Mature vesicles are called secretory
vesicles.

A

Vesicles

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48
Q

Vesicles transport cellular material.
Mature vesicles are called

A

secretory
vesicles

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49
Q

Structure: smaller, spherical
membrane bound organelles
formed from the endoplasmic
reticulum.

A

PEROXISOMES

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50
Q

Functions: Detoxify specific harmful substances either
produced by the cell or taken
into the cell

A

PEROXISOMES

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51
Q

Structure: Organized network of
protein filaments

A

CYTOSKELETON

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52
Q

Function: Maintains integral
structural support and organization
of cells

A

CYTOSKELETON

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53
Q

maintain cell shape.

A

Microfilaments

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54
Q

give
mechanical support to structures like
nucleus and plasma membrane.

A

Intermediate filaments

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55
Q

provides structural
support.

A

Microtubules

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56
Q

Prokaryotes

A

(Eubacteria and Archaebacteria)

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57
Q

are
the most abundant organisms on earth.

A

Prokaryotes (Eubacteria and Archaebacteria)

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58
Q

does not contain a membranebound nucleus.

A

prokaryotic cell

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59
Q

is surrounded by a plasma
membrane.

A

prokaryotic cell

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60
Q

has no subcellular organelles, only
infoldings of the plasma membrane called
mesosomes

A

cell

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61
Q

is condensed
within the cytosol to form the nucleoid.

A

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

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62
Q

have tail-like flagella.

A

prokaryotes

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63
Q

Passive Transport Process

is the movement of a substance from an area of its
higher concentration to an area of its lower concentration.

A

Diffusion

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64
Q

Passive Transport Process

is the type of diffusion of dissolved solutes
through the plasma membrane

A

Simple diffusion

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65
Q

Passive Transport Process

is the type of diffusion that requires a
protein carrier.

A

Facilitated Diffusion

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66
Q

Passive Transport Process

is the diffusion of water point across a selectively
permeable membrane

A

Osmosis

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67
Q

This type of cell membrane transport uses energy (ATP) provided by the cell.

A

Active Transport Process

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68
Q

Active Transport Process

For example, cell has low intracellular sodium; but concentration of
potassium inside the cell is very high. This is maintained by the

A

sodium–
potassium activated ATPase

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69
Q

Active Transport Process

For example, cell has low intracellular sodium; but concentration of
potassium inside the cell is very high. This is maintained by the sodium–
potassium activated ATPase, generally called as

A

sodium pump

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70
Q

Active Transport Process

refers to bulk movement of substance out of the cell by fusion of
secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane.

A

Exocytosis

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71
Q

Active Transport Process

refers to bulk movement of substance into the cells by vesicles
forming at the plasma membrane.

A

Endocytosis

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72
Q

It is the longer phase of the cell cycle where the cell is active and preparing for cell division.

A

Interphase

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73
Q

Cells arise from the division of other cells.

A

Cell Division

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74
Q

consists of four stages-prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The result is two
daughter nuclei, each identical to the mother nucleus.

A

Mitosis

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75
Q

each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined at the centromere.

A

Prophase

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76
Q

chromosomes align at the center of the cell

A

Metaphase

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77
Q

chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite poles.

A

Anaphase

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78
Q

two new nuclei assume their normal structure, and cell division is completed, producing two new
daughter cells.

A

Telophase

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79
Q

is a combination of true and a colloidal solution since some of
its components are insoluble while others are soluble in its water medium.

A

cell (protoplasm)

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80
Q

colloidal properties of the cell

A

Filterability
Negligible Osmotic Pressure
Tyndall Phenomenon
Brownian Movement
Electrical Charges

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81
Q

Particles of colloidal solution can pass through ordinary filter
paper but not through parchment membrane.

A

Filterability

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82
Q

Particles are comparatively small therefore
they have negligible osmotic pressure

A

Negligible Osmotic Pressure

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83
Q

Colloidal solution possesses Tyndall Effect

A

Tyndall Phenomenon

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84
Q

Suspended particles of a colloidal solution are
observed to be in continuous, rapid vibratory motion.

A

Brownian Movement

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85
Q

Colloidal particles are electrically charged, the charged
being distributed over the surface of the entire particle

A

Electrical Charges

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86
Q

Molecules in the interior of a homogenous liquid are attached in all
directions by surrounding molecules so they move freely in all direction while
surface molecules are attracted more towards the center of the liquid making
the surface molecules more compact. The force by which the surface
molecule are held is called the

A

Surface tension

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87
Q

Whenever a semi-permeable membrane separates two solutions of unequal
concentrations, the fluid tends to flow from the side of low osmotic pressure
to that of higher osmotic pressure until an osmotic equilibrium is established.

A

Osmosis

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88
Q

the cell tends to shrink

A

hypertonic

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89
Q

CELL

medium, the cell tends to swell.

A

hypotonic

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90
Q

CELL

Interpenetration of molecules between two substances occurs whenever the
solute distributes itself uniformly into the solvent. Small molecules and ions
move faster than macromolecules. The rate of diffusion of substances is
dependent on the molecular size, weight, shape and the concentration
gradient.

A

Diffusion

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91
Q

CELL

When a semi-permeable membrane allows the passage of the crystalloids but
not the colloids, the rate of dialysis depends on the size of the pores,
temperature, electrical charge, area of dialyzer, and the relative concentration
on the two sides of the membrane.

A

Dialysis

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92
Q

CELL

is an essential substance for plant and animal growth. Without water, there
would be no life on earth.

A

water

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93
Q

CELL

is essential to life and is in solvent water that the
chemical reactions of biological processes evolved.

A

water

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93
Q

CELL

is the major component of the cell,

A

water

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93
Q

CELL

water is the major component of the cell, making around __________ of
its weight and inert space filler in living organism.

A

70 to 90%

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94
Q

CELL

Due to its highly reactive and
unusual properties and its ionization products

A

H+ and OH-

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95
Q

CELL

is an important
factor in modifying structures of biomolecules such as nucleic acids, carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, enzymes, and other cell components

A

water

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96
Q

CELL

General Properties of Water

A
  1. Chemically pure water is colorless, odorless and tasteless.
  2. Has a higher boiling point and osmotic pressure.
  3. High specific heat.
  4. High latent heat of vaporization.
  5. High surface tension.
  6. Had the capacity to dissipate heat to its environment.
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97
Q

CELL

Water is an excellent solvent for ionic compounds because of the
attraction between the ionic components of the molecules and the water
dipoles is sufficient to overcome the attraction between the ions themselves.
Non-ionic polar compounds such as sugars, alcohols, aldehydes and ketones are
also very soluble in water. Their polar functional group [OH] readily hydrogen
bonds with water molecules, dispersing the compounds among the water
molecules.
Other substances dispersed by water are those hydrophobic group
known as amphipathic molecules such as salts and fat acids and are called
micelles. Micelle formation is important for an understanding of organized
biological system among amphipathic compounds such as proteins,
phospholipids and nucleic acids.

A

A universal solvent

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98
Q

CELL

Water is an irregular tetrahedron with oxygen at its center. Two hydrogen are
bonded with oxygen forming 105o a slightly skewed tetrahedron. Because of this
structure electrical charge is not distributed uniformly about the water molecule. The
oxygen side is partially negative because of the relatively rich in electrons and the two
hydrogen forming a region of local positive charge. The unequal distribution of
charges with in a molecule is term “dipole” such as in water

A

An Electron Dipole

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99
Q

CELL

Colligative properties such as freezing point and boiling point, vapor pressure
and aromatic pressure are altered by dissolved solutes. Colligative properties depend
only in the number of solute molecules per unit volume of solvent and independent
of their chemical structure. Dissolved solutes disturbed hydrogen bonding in water
molecules, thus reducing its effect as a solvent.

A

Altered by Solutes

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100
Q

CELL

A system that can resist a change in pH upon the addition of either acid or
base is called a buffer. Solutions of weak acids and their conjugate bases and on
weak bases and their conjugate acids exhibit buffering. Functional groups such as
carboxyl group, amino group and phosphate esters are functional groups of are
weak acids or bases that many biomolecules possess.
In humans, the main extra cellular buffering system is the bicarbonate
system (H2CO3/ HCO3- buffer pair), and the principal intra cellular system involves
the second dissociation of phosphoric acid (H2PO4-/ HPO42-).

A

Physiological Buffer System

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101
Q

CELL

Vital to the normal functioning of some enzymes and for the maintenance of functional conformation of proteins, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates

A

Inorganic ions

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102
Q

Review of Functional Groups

Study of hydrocarbons (only carbon
and hydrogen atoms) and their various derivatives.

A

Organic chemistry

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103
Q

Study of all substances other than
hydrocarbons and their derivatives.

A

Inorganic chemistry

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104
Q

always makes total of 4 Bonds

A

C-atom

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105
Q

The sharing of ___________ requires the
formation of four covalent bonds which are represented
by four lines

A

four valance electrons

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106
Q

are groups of atoms in organic molecules that are responsible
for the characteristics, chemical reactions of those molecules.

A

Functional Groups

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107
Q

that contain the same functional group in
their structure can be expected to react in similar ways.

A

Simple molecules

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108
Q

may contain more
than one functional group within their structure

A

More complicated chemical molecules

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109
Q

Hydrocarbons

A

Alkanes
Alkenes
Alkynes
Arenes

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110
Q

Alkanes

A

Hydrocarbons

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110
Q

Alkenes

A

Hydrocarbons

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111
Q

Alkynes

A

Hydrocarbons

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111
Q

Arenes

A

Hydrocarbons

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112
Q

Alkanes: General Formula

A

RH

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113
Q

Alkenes: General Formula

A

RR’C=CR”R’”

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114
Q

Alkynes: General Formula

A

RC=CR’

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115
Q

Arenes: General Formula

A

ArH

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116
Q

Alkanes: Common Name

A

ethane

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117
Q

Alkenes: Common Name

A

ethylene (ethene)

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118
Q

Alkynes: Common Name

A

acetylene (ethyne)

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119
Q

Arenes: Common Name

A

benzene

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120
Q

Alkanes: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

-ane

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121
Q

Alkenes: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

-ene

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122
Q

Alkynes: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

(-yne)

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123
Q

Arenes: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

-ene

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124
Q

Halogen-Containing Compounds

A

Alkyl Halides
Aryl Halides

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125
Q

Halogen-Containing Compounds

A

Alkyl Halides

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126
Q

Halogen-Containing Compounds

A

Aryl Halides

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127
Q

Alkyl Halides: General Formula

A

RX

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128
Q

Aryl Halides: General Formula

A

ArX

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129
Q

Alkyl Halides: Common Name (Systematic Name)

A

ethyl cloride (chloroethane)

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130
Q

Aryl Halides: Common Name (Systematic Name)

A

chlorobenzene

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131
Q

Alkyl Halides: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

halide (halo-)

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132
Q

Aryl Halides: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

halo-

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132
Q

Oxygen-Containing Compounds

A

Alcohols
Phenols
Ethers
Aldehydes
Ketones
Carboxylic acids

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133
Q

Phenols

A

Oxygen-Containing Compounds

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133
Q

Ethers

A

Oxygen-Containing Compounds

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133
Q

Aldehydes

A

Oxygen-Containing Compounds

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133
Q

Ketones

A

Oxygen-Containing Compounds

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134
Q

Carboxylic acids

A

Oxygen-Containing Compounds

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134
Q

Alcohols: General Formula

A

ROH^

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134
Q

Phenols: General Formula

A

ArOH^b

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135
Q

Ethers: General Formula

A

ROR^r

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136
Q

Aldehydes: General Formula

A

RCHO

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137
Q

Ketones: General Formula

A

RR’C=O

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138
Q

Carboxylic acids: General Formula

A

RCO^2H

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139
Q

Alcohols: Common Name (Systematic Name)

A

ethyl alcohol (ethanol)

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140
Q

Phenols: Common Name (Systematic Name)

A

phenol

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141
Q

Ethers: Common Name (Systematic Name)

A

diethyl ether

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142
Q

Aldehydes: Common Name (Systematic Name)

A

acetaldehyde (ethanal)

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143
Q

Ketones: Common Name (Systematic Name)

A

acetone (2-propane)

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144
Q

Carboxylic acids: Common Name (Systematic Name)

A

acetic acid (ethanoic acid)

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145
Q

Alcohols: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

-ol

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146
Q

Phenols: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

-ol

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147
Q

Ethers: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

ether

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148
Q

Aldehydes: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

-aldehyde (-al)

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149
Q

Carboxylic acids: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

-ic acid (-oic acid)

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150
Q

Ketones: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

-one

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151
Q

Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

A

Ester
Amides

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152
Q

Ester

A

Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

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153
Q

Amides

A

Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

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154
Q

Ester: General Formula

A

RCO^2R^F

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155
Q

Amides: General Formula

A

RCONHR^r

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156
Q

Ester: Common Name (Systematic Name)

A

methyl acetate (methyl ethanoate)

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157
Q

Amides: Common Name (Systematic Name)

A

N-methylacetamide

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158
Q

Ester: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

-ate (-oate)

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159
Q

Amides: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

-amide

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160
Q

Nitrogen-Containing Compounds

A

Amines
Nitriles
Nitro compounds

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161
Q

Amines

A

Nitrogen-Containing Compounds

162
Q

Nitriles

A

Nitrogen-Containing Compounds

163
Q

Nitro compounds

A

Nitrogen-Containing Compounds

164
Q

Amines: General Formula

A

RNH^2r RNHR^F^F RNR^r R”

165
Q

Nitriles: General Formula

A

RC triple bond N

165
Q

Nitro compounds: General Formula

A

ArNO^2^

166
Q

Amines: Common Name (Systematic Name)

A

ethylamine

167
Q

Nitriles: Common Name (Systematic Name)

A

acetonitrile

168
Q

Nitro compounds: Common Name (Systematic Name)

A

nitrobenzene

169
Q

Amines: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

-amine

170
Q

Nitriles: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

-nitrile

171
Q

Nitro compounds: Common Suffix/Prefix (Systematic)

A

nitro-

172
Q

is the study of the chemical substances
found in living organisms and the chemical interactions
of these substances with each other

A

Biochemistry

173
Q

is a chemical substance found
within a living organism

A

biochemical substance

173
Q

Two types of biochemical substances

A

bioinorganic
substances and bioorganic substances

173
Q

carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids

A

Bioorganic substances

174
Q

water and inorganic salts.

A

Bioinorganic substances

174
Q

As isolated compounds, bioinorganic and bioorganic
substances have no life in and of themselves. Yet when
these substances are gathered together in a cell, their
chemical interactions are able to

A

sustain life

175
Q

It is estimated that more than half of all______ are found in the carbohydrate materials of plants

A

organic carbon atoms

176
Q

uses for carbohydrates of the plant kingdom
extend beyond food.

A

Human

177
Q

in the form of cotton
and linen are used as clothing.

A

Carbohydrates

178
Q

in the
form of wood are used for shelter and heating and in
making paper.

A

Carbohydrates

179
Q

75% of dry plant material

A

Photosynthesis

180
Q

structural element

A

Cellulose

181
Q

energy reservoir

A

Starch/glycogen

182
Q

small amount in human body

A

Starch/glycogen

183
Q

are source of carbohydrates

A

Plant products

184
Q

average human diet contains

A

2/3 of carbohydrates

185
Q

Most of the matter in plants, except ___________ is carbohydrate material.

A

water

186
Q

provides energy

A

Carbohydrate oxidation

187
Q

in the form of glycogen, provides a
short-term energy reserve

A

Carbohydrate storage

188
Q

Carbohydrates supply ______ for the synthesis of other
biochemical substances (proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids)

A

carbon atoms

189
Q

Carbohydrates form part of the

A

structural framework of DNA
and RNA molecules

190
Q

are structural
components of cell membranes

A

Carbohydrates linked to lipids

191
Q

function in a
variety of cell–cell and cell–molecule recognition processes

A

Carbohydrates linked to proteins

192
Q

Photosynthesis
* Simpler Formula:

A

CnH2nOn or
Cn(H2O)n (hydrates of C)
– n= number of atoms

193
Q

Carbohydrates are _________ that produce such substances upon
hydrolysis

A

polyhydroxy aldehydes or
ketones or
compounds

194
Q

Contain single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit

A

Monosaccharide

195
Q

They can’t be broken down into simpler substances by
hydrolysis (reaction with water) reactions

A

Monosaccharide

196
Q

Monosaccharide

Contains _________ atoms

A

3-7 C

197
Q

Monosaccharide

carbon species are more common

A

5 and 6 carbon species

198
Q

Monosaccharide

Water soluble

A

white crystalline solids

199
Q

Contains ~2-10 monosaccharide units - covalently
bonded to each other

A

Oligosaccharides

200
Q

(contain 2 monosaccharide units) more
common - crystalline water soluble substances

A

Disaccharides

200
Q

Table sugar

A

sucrose

201
Q

milk sugar

A

lactose

201
Q
  • are common disaccharides
A

sucrose & lactose

201
Q

Upon hydrolysis they produce monosaccharide

A

Oligosaccharides

202
Q

In human body associated with proteins and lipids for
structural and regulatory functions

A

Oligosaccharides

203
Q

Contains many monosaccharide units covalently bonded

A

Polysaccharides

204
Q

Polysaccharides

May contain 100s of 1000s of
monosaccharide units

A

Polymers

205
Q

Polysaccharides

Paper, cotton, wood

A

Cellulose

206
Q

Polysaccharides

Bread, pasta, potatoes, rice, corn, beans, peas,
etc

A

Starch

207
Q

Classification of Carbohydrates

A

Monosaccharide
Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides

208
Q

Chirality: Handedness in Molecules

Most monosaccharides exist in two forms

A

a “left handed”
and “right handed” form

209
Q

Chirality: Handedness in Molecules

Two types of objects

A

Superimposible on their mirror images
Non-superimposible on their mirror images

210
Q

images that coincide at all points when the images are laid upon each other – a dinner plate with no design features -

A

Superimposible on their mirror images or
Achiral

211
Q
A
212
Q

Chirality: Handedness in Molecules

Non-superimposible on their mirror images

A

Chiral (handedness)

213
Q

C atom attached to 4 different groups

A

Chiral Center

214
Q

Chirality: Handedness in Molecules

Best way to visualize - look at all C atoms and see if there are

A

at least two H atoms then that can’t be a chiral center

214
Q

Chirality: Handedness in Molecules

are worth looking at for
their chirality

A

C atoms with less than one H atoms

215
Q

Chirality: Handedness in Molecules

Almost all monosaccharides are

A

right handed

216
Q

Chirality: Handedness in Molecules

Amino acids are almost always

A

left handed

217
Q

Chirality: Handedness in Molecules

Right handed hormone epinephrine is 20 times

A

more active than left handed form

218
Q

are isomers that have the same
molecular and structural formulas but differ in the
orientation of atoms in space.

A

Stereoisomers

219
Q

Stereoisomerism: Enantiomers and Diasterioisomers

Two types Stereoisomers

A

Enantiomers & Diastereomers

220
Q

Stereoisomerism: Enantiomers and Diasterioisomers

are stereoisomers whose molecules are
nonsuperimposable mirror images of each other. Molecules with chiral center.

A

Enantiomers

221
Q

Stereoisomerism: Enantiomers and Diasterioisomers

are stereoisomers whose molecules are not mirror images of each other.

A

Diastereomers

222
Q

Designating Handedness Using Fischer Projection Formulas

a method for giving
molecular chirality specifications in two dimensions

A

Fischer projection formulas

223
Q

Designating Handedness Using Fischer Projection Formulas

is a two-dimensional structural
notation for showing the spatial arrangement of groups
about chiral centers in molecules.

A

Fischer projection formula

224
Q

Designating Handedness Using Fischer Projection Formulas

In a Fischer projection formula a __________is
represented as the intersection of vertical and horizontal lines

A

chiral center (Carbon)

225
Q

Designating Handedness Using Fischer Projection Formulas

Functional groups of high priority will be written at top

A

Fischer Project Formulas

226
Q

Designating Handedness Using Fischer Projection Formulas

used to designate the handedness of
glyceraldehyde enantiomers

A

D and L system

227
Q

Designating Handedness Using Fischer Projection Formulas

The four groups attached to the atom at the chiral center
assume a tetrahedral geometry and it is governed by the
following conventions

A

Tetrahedral Arrangements

228
Q

Designating Handedness Using Fischer Projection Formulas: Tetrahedral Ar

from the chiral center represent bonds to groups
directed into the printed page.

Tetrahedral Arrangements

A

Vertical lines

Tetrahedral Arrangements

229
Q

Designating Handedness Using Fischer Projection Formulas: Tetrahedral Ar

from the chiral center represent bonds to
groups directed out of the printed page

Tetrahedral Arrangements

A

Horizontal lines

Tetrahedral Arrangements

230
Q

Designating Handedness Using Fischer Projection Formulas

used to designate the handedness of
glyceraldehyde enantiomers

A

D and L system

231
Q

Designating Handedness Using Fischer Projection Formulas

D-Glyceroldehyde

A

D-Glyceroldehyde (-OH on right side)

232
Q

L-Glyceroldehyde

A

L-Glyceroldehyde (-OH on left side)

233
Q

Designating Handedness Using Fischer Projection Formula

a monosaccharide
with four carbons and two chiral

A

2,3,4-trihydroxybutanal

234
Q

Designating Handedness Using Fischer Projection Formu

used to designate the handedness of
glyceraldehyde enantiomers can be extended to other
monosaccharides with more than one chiral center

A

D,L system

235
Q

Designating Handedness Using Fischer Projection Formula

is numbered starting at the carbonyl
group end of the molecule, and the highest-numbered
chiral center is used to determine D or L configuration

A

carbon chain

236
Q

Designating Handedness Using Fischer Projection Formulas

are diastereomers whose molecules differ only
in the configuration at one chiral

A

Epimers

237
Q
A
238
Q

Properties of Enantiomer

also differ in most chemical and physical
properties. They also have different boiling points and
freezing points

A

Diastereomers

239
Q

Properties of Enantiomer

Two differences of Enantiomers

Constitutional Isomers and Diastereom

A
  1. Their interaction with plane polarized light
  2. Their interaction with other chiral substan
240
Q
A
241
Q

Properties of Enantiomer

Move in all direct

Interaction of Enantiomers with Plane-Polarized Light

A

Ordinary Light

242
Q
A
243
Q
A
244
Q
A
245
Q

Properties of Enantiomers

move only in
one

Interaction of Enantiomers with Plane-Polarized L

A

Plane polarized light

245
Q

Properties of Enantiomer

to same extent but in opposite
direction

Interaction of Enantiomers with Plane-Polarized Light

A

Same concentration of two enantiomers
rotate light

245
Q

Properties of Enantiomer

is rotated clockwise
* (to right) or counterclockwise (to left)
when passed through enantiomers
Direction and extent of rotation will
* depend upon the enantiome

Interaction of Enantiomers with Plane-Polarized Lig

A

Plane polarized light

246
Q

are optically active: Compounds that rotate plane
polarized light

Dextrorotary and Levorotatory Compound

A

Enantiomers

247
Q

Properties of Enantiomers

Chiral compound that rotates light towards right (clockwise;
+)

A

Dextrorotatory

247
Q

Properties of Enantiomers

Chiral compound that rotates light towards left
(counterclockwise; -)

A

Levorotatory

247
Q

Properties of Enantiomers

There is no correlation between

Dextrorotary and Levorotatory Compounds

A

D, L and +, -

248
Q

Properties of Enantiomers

you need to look at the structure

Dextrorotary and Levorotatory Compound

A

D and L

249
Q

Properties of Enantiomers

are determined by using a polarimeter

Dextrorotary and Levorotatory Compounds

A

+ and -

250
Q

Properties of Enantiomers

react
differently with other chiral molecules

Interactions Between Chiral Compounds

A

Two members of enantiomer pair (chiral)

251
Q

Properties of Enantiomers

have same solubility in achiral
solvents like ethanol and have different solubility in chiral
solvent like D-2-butanol

Interactions Between Chiral Compounds

A

Enantiomeric pairs

252
Q

Properties of Enantiomers

have same boiling points, melting points
and densities - all these are dependent upon
intermolecular forces and chirality doesn’t depend on them

Interactions Between Chiral Compounds

A

Enantiomers

253
Q

Properties of Enantiomers

: Body response to

Interactions Between Chiral Compounds

A

to D form of hormone

254
Q

Properties of Enantiomers

epinephrine is 20 times greater than its

Interactions Between Chiral Compounds

A

L isomer

255
Q

Classification of Monosaccharides

3 carbon atoms

A

Triose

256
Q

Classification of Monosaccharides

4 carbon atoms

A

Tetrose

257
Q

5 carbon atoms

A

Pentoses

258
Q

Classification of Monosaccharides

6 carbon atoms

A

Hexoses

259
Q

Classification of Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides with one aldehyde group

A

Aldoses

260
Q

Classification of Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides with one ketone group

A

Ketoses

261
Q

Classification of Monosaccharides

Most Common Monosaccharides

Most Common Monosaccharides

A

Aldohexose
Ketohexose

262
Q

Classification of Monosaccharides

Monosaccharide with
aldehyde group and 6 C
atoms – D-glucose

Most Common Monosaccharides

A

Aldohexose

263
Q

Classification of Monosaccharides

Monosaccharide with
aldehyde group and 6 C
atoms – D-fructose

Most Common Monosaccharides

A

Ketohexose

264
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

also named grape sugar, dextrose
and blood sugar (70 - 100 mg/100 mL of blood)

Glucose and Fructose

A

Grape fruit good source of glucose (20 - 30%
by mass)

265
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Most abundant in nature

A

Glucose

266
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Nutritionally most important

A

Glucose

267
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Six membered cyclic form

A

Glucose

268
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Ketohexose

A

Fructose

269
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Sweetest tasting of all sugars

A

Fructose

270
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Found in many fruits and in honey

A

Fructose

271
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Good dietary sugar– due to higher sweetness

A

Fructose

272
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Five membered cyclic form

A

Fructose

273
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

A

Glucose and Fructose
Galactose and Ribose

274
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Milk sugar

A

Galactose

275
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

synthesize in human

A

Galactose

276
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Also called brain sugar– part of brain and nerve tissue

A

Galactose

277
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Used to differentiate between blood types

A

Galactose

278
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Six membered cyclic form

A

Galactose

279
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Part of RNA

A

Ribose

280
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Part of ATP

A

Ribose

281
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Part of DNA

A

Ribose

282
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

Five membered cyclic form

A

Ribose

283
Q

Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides

Dominant form of monosaccharides with 5 or more C atoms is

Cyclic Hemiacetal Forms of D-Glucose

A

cyclic

284
Q

Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides

are in equilibrium with open chain form

Cyclic Hemiacetal Forms of D-Glucose

A

cyclic forms

285
Q

Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides

are formed by the reaction of carbonyl group (C=O)
with hydroxyl (-OH) group on carbon 5

Cyclic Hemiacetal Forms of D-Glucose

A

Cyclic forms

286
Q

Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides

2 forms of D-glucose

Cyclic Hemiacetal Forms of D-Glucose

A

Alpha-form
Beta-form

287
Q

Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides

OH of C1 and CH2OH of C5 are on opposite sides

Cyclic Hemiacetal Forms of D-Glucose

A

Alpha-form

288
Q

Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides

-OH of C1 and CH2OH of C5 are on same sides

Cyclic Hemiacetal Forms of D-Glucose

A

Beta-form

289
Q

Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides

Intramolecular cyclic hemiacetal formation and the
equilibrium between various forms are

A

not restricted to
glucose

290
Q
A
290
Q

Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides

All aldoses with five or more carbon atoms establish
similar _______ but with different percentages of the
alpha, beta, and open-chain forms.

A

equilibria

291
Q

Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides

Fructose and other ketoses with a sufficient number of
carbon atoms also

A

cyclize

291
Q

Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides

A cyclic monosaccharide containing a six-atom ring is
called a

Pyranose and Furanose

A

pyranose

292
Q

Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides

one containing a five-atom ring is
called

Pyranose and Furanose

A

furanose

because their ring structures resemble
the ring structures in the cyclic ethers pyran and furan
respectively

293
Q

Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides

A

Pyranose and Furanose

294
Q

is a two-dimensional
structural notation that specifies the three-dimensional
structure of a cyclic form of a monosaccharide.

A

Haworth projection formula

295
Q

Haworth Projection Formulas

s determined by the position of the —
OH group on C1 relative to the CH2OH group that determines D or L
series.

A

Alpha or Beta configuration

296
Q

Haworth Projection Formulas

both of these groups point in the same
direction

A

Beta configuration

297
Q

Haworth Projection Formulas

the two groups point in opposite directions

A

Alpha configuration

298
Q

Haworth Projection Formulas

The specific identity of a monosaccharide is determined by the
positioning of the other

A

OH groups

299
Q

Haworth Projection Formulas

Any —OH group at a chiral center that is to the right in a Fischer
projection formula points

A

down in the Haworth projection formula

300
Q

Haworth Projection Formulas

OH group to the left in a Fischer projection formula points

A

up in the Haworth projection formula

301
Q

Haworth Projection Formulas

. It is a pentose

A

Ribose

302
Q

Haworth Projection Formulas

It is a ketose

A

Fructose

303
Q

Haworth Projection Formulas

Its cyclic form has a 6-membered ring.

A

Glucose, galactose

304
Q

Haworth Projection Formulas

Its cyclic form has two carbon atoms outside the ring.

A

Fructose

305
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

Five important reactions of monosaccharides

A

– Oxidation to acidic sugars
– Reduction to sugar alcohols
– Glycoside formation
– Phosphate ester formation
– Amino sugar formation

306
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

The redox chemistry of
monosaccharides is closely linked to the alcohol
and aldehyde functional groups present in them.

A

Oxidation to acidic sugars

307
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

Weak oxidizing agents

A

**Tollens and Benedict’s solutions **
oxidize the aldehyde end to give an aldonic acid.

308
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

can oxidize both ends of a
monosaccharide at the same time (the carbonyl group
and the terminal primary alcohol group) to produce a
dicarboxylic acid

A

Strong oxidizing agents

309
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

are known as
aldaric acids

A

polyhydroxy dicarboxylic acids

310
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

In biochemical systems enzymes can oxidize the primary
alcohol end of an aldose such as glucose, without
oxidation of the aldehyde group, to produce an

A

alduronic
acid

311
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

The carbonyl group in a
monosaccharide (either an aldose or a ketose) is
reduced to a hydroxyl group using hydrogen as the
reducing agent

A

Reduction to sugar alcohols

312
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

The product is the corresponding polyhydroxy alcohol

A

sugar alcohol

313
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

used as moisturizing agents in foods and
cosmetics and as a sweetening agent in chewing
gum

A

Sorbitol

314
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

Cyclic forms of monosaccharides
are hemiacetals, they react with alcohols to form acetals

A

Glycoside formation

315
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

are called glycoside

A

Monosaccharide acetals

316
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

is an acetal formed from a cyclic
monosaccharide by replacement of the hemiacetal
carbon —OH group with an —OR group

A

glycoside

317
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

A glycoside produced from glucose

A

glucoside

318
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

Glycosides exist in both

A

Alpha and Beta forms

319
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

Human blood is
classified into four types: A, B, AB, and O

A

Blood Types and Monosaccharides

320
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

Blood of one type cannot be given to a recipient
with

A

blood of another type

321
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

A transfusion of wrong blood type can cause the
blood cells to form

A

clumps

322
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

People with type O blood are

A

universal donors

323
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

those with type AB blood are

A

universal
recipients

324
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

In the United States type O blood is the

A

most common

325
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

type A the

A

second most common

326
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

The monosaccharides responsible for blood groups

A

D-galactose and its derivatives

327
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

The hydroxyl groups of a
monosaccharide can react with inorganic oxyacids to
form inorganic esters.

A

Phosphate ester formation

328
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

are stable
in aqueous solution and play important roles in the
metabolism of carbohydrates

A

Phosphate esters

329
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

one of the
hydroxyl groups of a monosaccharide is replaced with an
amino group

A

amino sugar

330
Q

is replaced by an amino group

A

carbon 2
hydroxyl group

330
Q

Reactions of Monosaccharides

are
important building blocks of polysaccharides such as
chitin

A

Amino sugars and their N-acetyl derivatives

331
Q

Two monosaccharides can react to form

A

disaccharide

332
Q

One monosaccharide act as a____ __________ and the other as ____________________ ___________

A

hemiacetal & alcohol

333
Q

is produced as an intermediate in the
hydrolysis of the polysaccharide cellulose

A

Cellobiose

334
Q

Cellobiose contains

A

two b - D-glucose monosaccharide units linked through a b (1—4) glycosidic linkage

335
Q

cannot be
digested by humans.

A

cellobiose

335
Q

is digested easily by humans because we have
enzymes that can break a (1-4) linkages but not b (1-4)
linkages of cellobiose

A

Maltose

336
Q

is made up of b-D-galactose unit and a b-D- glucose unit joined by a b(1-4) glycosidic linkage

A

Lactose

337
Q

principal carbohydrate in milk

A

Lactose

338
Q

Human - _____________ __lactose

A

7%–8%

339
Q

cow’s milk -

A

4%–5% lactose

340
Q

a condition in which people lack the
enzyme lactase needed to hydrolyze lactose to galactose and
glucose

A

Lactose intolerance

341
Q

b(1-4) glycosidic linkages

A

Lactase hydrolyzes

342
Q

The
most abundant of all
disaccharides and found in
plants

A

Sucrose (table sugar)

343
Q

It is produced commercially
from the juice of sugar cane
and sugar beets

A

Sucrose (table sugar)

344
Q

contains up to
20% by mass sucrose

A

Sugar cane

345
Q

contain up to
17% by mass sucrose

A

Sugar beets

346
Q

Disaccharides

A

Cellobiose
Maltose
Lactose
Sucrose

347
Q

Two different monosaccharide units are present

A

Lactose, sucrose

347
Q

Hydrolysis produces only monosaccharides

A

Maltose, cellobiose, lactose, sucrose

348
Q

Its glycosidic linkage is a “head-to-head” linkage

A

Sucrose

349
Q

It is not a reducing sugar

A

Sucrose

350
Q

Many monosaccharide units bonded with glycosidic linkages

A

Polymers

351
Q

PolymersTwo types

A

Linear and branched
homo- and hetero-polysaccharides

352
Q

are not sweet and don’t show positive
tests with Tollen’s and Benedict’s solutions whereas
monosaccharides are sweet and show positive tests

A

Polysaccharides

353
Q

Limited water solubility

A

Polysaccharides

354
Q

Polysaccharides

starch in plants

A

Cellulose

355
Q

Polysaccharides

in animals

A

Glycogen

356
Q

Polysaccharides

in arthropods

A

Chitin

357
Q

Starch

is a polysaccharide that is a
storage form for monosaccharides and is used as an
energy source in cellsstorage polysaccharide

A

storage polysaccharide

358
Q

is the monomeric unit

A

Glucose

358
Q

Two types of polysaccharidse isolated from starch

A

Amylose & Molecular Mass

359
Q

Straight chain polymer - 15 - 20% of the
starch and has a (1  4) glycosidic bonds

A

startch Amylose

360
Q

50,000 (up to 1000 glucose units)

A

Starch Molecular Mass

361
Q

Branched chain polymer - 80 - 85 % of the starch a
(14) glycosidic bond for straight chain and a (16)
for branch

A

Amylopectin Stucture

362
Q

Molecular Mass: 300,000 (up to 100,000 glucose
units) - higher than amylose

A

Amylopectin

363
Q

Humans and animals storage polysaccharide

A

Glycogen

364
Q

Contains only glucose units

A

Glycogen

365
Q

Branched chain polymer – a (14) glycosidic bonds in straight
chains and a (16) in branches

A

Glycogen

366
Q

Molecular Mass: 3,000,000 (up to 1,000,000 glucose units)

A

Glycogen

367
Q

Three times more highly branched than amylopectin in starch

A

Glycogen

368
Q

Excess glucose in blood stored in the form of glycogen

A

Glycogen

369
Q

Linear homopolysaccharide with b (1  4) glycosidic bond

A

Cellulose

370
Q

Up to 5000 glucose units with molecular mass of 900,000 amu

A

Cellulose

371
Q

Cotton cellulose and wood

A

~95% & ~50%

372
Q

It serves as dietary fiber in food– readily absorbs water and results in
softer stools

A

Cellulose

373
Q

dietary fiber is desired everyday

A

20 - 35 g

374
Q

Similar to cellulose in both function and structure

A

Chitin

375
Q

Linear polymer with all b (14) glycosidic linkages - it has a N- acetyl amino derivative of glucose

A

Chitin

376
Q

Function is to give rigidity to the exoskeleton s of crabs, lobsters,
shrimp, insects, and other arthropods

A

Chitin

377
Q

polysaccharides with a repeating
disaccharide unit containing an amino sugar and a sugar with a
negative charge due to a sulfate or a carboxyl group.

A

Acidic polysaccharides

378
Q

present in connective tissue associated
with joints, cartilage, synovial fluids in animals and humans

A

Structural polysaccharide

378
Q

is lubrication necessary for joint movement

A

Primary function of Acidic polysaccharides

379
Q

have more than one type of
monosaccharide monomers is present

A

heteropolysaccharides

380
Q

heteropolysaccharides ex;

A

– Hyaluronic acid
– Heparin

381
Q

Alternating residues of N- acetyl-b-D-glucosamine and
D-glucuronic acid

A

Hyaluronic acid

382
Q

serve as
lubricants in the fluid of
joints and part vitreous
humor of the eye.

A

Highly viscous

383
Q

An anticoagulant-prevents
blood clots

A

Heparin

384
Q

Polysaccharide with 15–90
disaccharide residues per
chain

A

Heparin

385
Q

is a lipid molecule that has one or more
carbohydrate (or carbohydrate derivative) units
covalently bonded to it.

A

glycolipid

386
Q

is a protein molecule that has one or
more carbohydrate (or carbohydrate derivative) units
covalently bonded to it

A

glycoprotein

387
Q

Foods high in carbs content constitute over _______ of the diet of most
people of the world

A

50%

387
Q
  • a balanced dietary food should contain about
A

60% of carbohydrate

387
Q

Corn in

A

South America

388
Q

Rice in

A

Asia

389
Q

Starchy root vegetables in parts of

A

Africa

390
Q

Potato and wheat in

A

North America

391
Q

Nutritionist divide dietary carbs into two classes:

A

Simple carb & Complex carbs

392
Q

dietary monosaccharides or disaccharides - sweet
to taste commonly referred to as sugars - 20 % of the energy in
the US die

A

Simple carb

393
Q

Dietary polysaccharides – starch and cellulose - normally not sweet to taste

A

Complex carbs

394
Q

A developing concern about intake of carbohydrates
involves how fast the given dietary carbs are broken
down to glucose within the human body

A

Glycemic Foods

395
Q

Glycemic effect refers to

A

– how quickly carbs are digested
– how high blood glucose rise
– how quickly blood glucose levels return to normal

396
Q

has been developed for rating foods

A

Glycemic index (GI)

HAS (3 decks)

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